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Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973-1048 CE), a distinguished Muslim scholar and polymath, made profound contributions across diverse disciplines, including physics, mathematics, astronomy, and anthropology. Al-Biruni's capture by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017 CE marked a transformative period. Despite captivity, he thrived intellectually, contributing significantly to Indology during his over-decade-long sojourn in northwest India. His famed work, Tarikh al-Hind, reflects his deep engagement with Indian religion, culture, and science, and he played a crucial role in bridging cultures, particularly through extensive interactions in Kashmir. His exploration of Kashmir’s geography and history in works like Tārīkh al-Hind reveals an acute understanding of the region's topography and strategic importance. Despite challenges, he documented the resistance and autonomy of Kashmir against external forces. Al-Biruni's accounts of medieval Kashmir's rulers and scienti
LadakhJammu-and-kashmirIndiaTurkeyKashmirianVardakAfghanistanTurkmenistanMartandUzbekistanKashmiriPaktiaMarco Polo's thirteenth-century travelogue offers a unique perspective on medieval Kashmir, providing insights into its geography, culture, and history. Polo's narrative, when analysed alongside other historical sources, sheds light on the strategically located region protected by treacherous gorges. Polo mentions Kashmir in various contexts, recounting events like the Mongol leader Nogodar's raid and describing the Kesmur people during his week-long visit. Despite fanciful details, his passages align with historical records, placing Kashmir as an easterly neighbour. While Polo's observations on Kashmir's climate, trade, and political status along Silk Road networks are supported by historical evidence, his understanding of society and religion reveals inaccuracies. Challenges arise in verifying Polo's claims due to the lack of contemporaneous records. Despite potential flaws, Polo's travelogue remains a valuable source, offering Western perspectives
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