Concerns have been growing over fake news and its impact. Software that can automatically detect fake news is becoming more popular. However, the accuracy and reliability of such fake-news detection software remains questionable, partly due to a lack of testing and verification. Testing this kind of software may face the oracle problem, which refers to difficulty (or inability) of identifying the correctness of the software's output in a reasonable amount of time. Metamorphic testing (MT) has a record of effectively alleviating the oracle problem, and has been successfully applied to testing fake-news detection software. This paper reports on a study, extending previous work, exploring the use of MT for fake-news detection software. The study includes new metamorphic relations and additional experimental results and analysis. Some alternative MR-generation approaches are also explored. The study targets software where the output is a real/fake news decision, enhancing the applicab
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As a worldwide epidemic in the digital age, cyberbullying is a pertinent but understudied concern especially from the perspective of language. Elucidating the linguistic features of cyberbullying is critical both to preventing it and to cultivating ethical and responsible digital citizens. In this study, a mixed-method approach integrating lexical feature analysis, sentiment polarity analysis, and semantic network analysis was adopted to develop a deeper understanding of cyberbullying language. Five cyberbullying cases on Chinese social media were analyzed to uncover explicit and implicit linguistic features. Results indicated that cyberbullying comments had significantly different linguistic profiles than non-bullying comments and that explicit and implicit bullying were distinct. The content of cases further suggested that cyberbullying language varied in the use of words, types of cyberbullying, and sentiment polarity. These findings offer useful insight for designing automatic cybe