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Many animal- and plant-pathogenic bacteria use a type III secretion system to deliver effector proteins into host cells1,2. Elucidation of how these effector proteins function in host cells is critical for understanding infectious diseases in animals and plants3–5. The widely conserved AvrE-family effectors, including DspE in Erwinia amylovora and AvrE in Pseudomonas syringae, have a central role in the pathogenesis of diverse phytopathogenic bacteria6. These conserved effectors are involved in the induction of ‘water soaking’ and host cell death that are conducive to bacterial multiplication in infected tissues. However, the exact biochemical functions of AvrE-family effectors have been recalcitrant to mechanistic understanding for three decades. Here we show that AvrE-family effectors fold into a β-barrel structure that resembles bacterial porins. Expression of AvrE and DspE in Xenopus oocytes results in inward and outward currents, permeabili
Pomegranate has a unique evolutionary history given that different cultivars have eight or nine bivalent chromosomes with possible crossability between the two classes. Therefore, it is important to study the chromosome evolution in pomegranate to understand the dynamics of its population. Here, we de-novo assembled the Azerbaijanian cultivar “Azerbaijan guloyshasi“ (AG2017; 2n=16) and re-sequenced six cultivars to track the evolution of pomegranate, and to compare it with previously published de-novo assembled and re-sequenced cultivars. High synteny was observed between AG2017, Bhagawa (2n=16) and Tunisia (2n=16) to Dabenzi (2n=18), but these four cultivars were diverged from the cultivar Taishanhong (2n=18) with several rearrangements indicating the presence of two major chromosome evolution events. Major presence/absence variations were not observed as >99% of the five genomes aligned across the cultivars, while >99% of the pan-genic content was represented by Tunisia and
The effects of the climate change including an increase in the average global temperatures, and abnormal weather events such as frequent and severe heatwaves are emerging as a worldwide ecological concern due to their impacts on plant vegetation and crop productivity. In this review, the molecular processes of plants in response to heat stress from the sensing of heat stress, the subsequent molecular cascades associated with the activation of heat shock factors and their primary targets (heat shock proteins), to the cellular responses have been summarized with an emphasis on the classification and functions of heat shock proteins. Vegetables contain many essential vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fibers that provide many critical health benefits to humans. The adverse effects of heat stress on vegetable growth can be alleviated by developing vegetable crops with enhanced thermotolerance with the aid of various genetic tools. To achieve this goal, a solid understanding of the molec