Educational institutions designed to mold the minds and bodies of italys children between the ages five and 11 undertook a mission to rejuvenate the italian race and create a second roman empire. This project depended on the twin beliefs that the italian population did, indeed, constitute a distinct race and that certain aspects of its moral and physical makeup could be influenced during childhood. The book released last year is the work of our visiting author, dr. Eden maclean. Dr. Mclean is a historian of 20thcentury europe with a focus on italy in the interwar period. She joined auburn Universitys Department of history in 2012 after teaching for two years at western connecticut state university. She earned her ph. D. In history from Yale University and a ba in history from university of virginia. She is joined on stage tonight by museum advisor, partner, and friend, dr. Gunter bischof. The marshal plan chair of history and director of our partner for tonights program,. Enter austria gunter is a regular presence here, be it at programs, on programs, or in any of our meetings rooms as weve plotted the growth of the museum over years. T 20 it is my pleasure to pass things off to his more capable hands, but first please join me in welcoming our guests. [applause] dr. Bischof good evening, thank you for being here. It is a pleasure to do this program tonight with dr. Mclean, tonight, particularly given that we do not talk about mussolini and italian fascism often. Since this is a museum largely American World war ii experience, i think its good to sort of branch out and start subject matters, too. We couldnt have a better on fascist italy here dr. Mccleon. When i mentioned this one day at Center Austria that we would talk on mussolinis children, someone started talking about children. The book is not about and children but rather the children of the arere italian nation, those mussolinis children, and how they were educated in Italian Schools. I would love to start by asking dr. Mclean, why does anyone in this country specialize in italian history . Dr. Mclean that is a good question and one i have gotten before. I started studying italy by chance. I was studying the italian language in college and decided to study abroad in bologna. I was writing a Research Paper on the Italian Resistance Movement and this is sort of my experience with this paper sort of guests at this question. Because i had never heard of the Italian Resistance Movement before i started researching it. Thathat was interesting is as i was living in northern italy and doing this research, it became very clear that the Italian Resistance Movement was one of, if not the prominent of world war ii for a lot of italians. So i became very interested in this difference between the experience of history and then the perception of history. And i thought that modern italy and the continuing reckoning with fascism is particularly important because here in the united states, we often think of italy as sort of an afterthought, especially where we are more interested in the world wars as opposed to the years in between the world wars. Italy did not initiate either war. Its military is frequently portrayed as rather incompetent and illequipped. A near win in the first war and a decided notwin in the second decided it was not very important. But i think research and conversations show italy has a lot to tell us about 20thcentury political, cultural, and social crises and movements on responses to those crises. And ultimately, i think that we as americans often like to compare italy to germany or france or britain, and therefore important. But i actually think you cannot understand any of the National Context without understanding how they interact with one another. And ultimately, in terms of world war ii, you cannot understand adolf hitler and naziism without first understanding Benito Mussolini and italian fascism. Dr. Bischof you learned italian in college. You did not grow up in an italianamerican family . Dr. Mclean no, i didnt. I dont have italian heritage. My father was a historian of germany so i grew up learning some german and in high school i had gone through all of the german classes i could and had to strike a compromise with my father. He wanted me to take french and i wanted to take spanish so we decided on italian. So i studied italian history because i know italian and i did not want to have to use my latin. Dr. Bischof you mentioned germany and if you think about fascism and racism, you first do indeed probably think about socialism and antisemitism. Your book makes a very clear point that italian fascism had had veryacist fascism little to do with jews and antisemitism. That came later in 1938. Can you layout the main arguments of your book to have your audience understand what you mean by Italian Fascist racism . Dr. Mclean absolutely. To be clear, as dr. Hudson and dr. Bischof have said, the core argument of my book is concepts of race and racism were critical to italian fascism. Here it is important as members of an american audience to understand, because of our Clear Association of world war ii and racism to antisemitism, that not all racism is antisemitism interwar period or world war ii, not even in nazi germany, right . So separating the idea of race antisemitism is sort of important. What i argue is that the fascist regime in the interwar period used Elementary Education to andally sort of instill promote a campaign of what they sortd boneat ecomana, this of human reclamation, to mold italians, italian children, into what they considered ideal go off and order to aconquer and then rebuild roman empire. Now, what is interesting about this is that what they argued were the ideal characteristics of the italians were born within and innate to every single italian. That is, they argued that the glory of their ancestors, really of ancient rome and other things, resided in each and every italian they were born with it. And that it could be seen through their behavior, their morals, through their language, through their spirit. Right . And if they could strengthen those, then they could actually regain their place in the sun. That and i just want to add to clarify what i and racism, is the s focus onfascist italianristics of this identity, this italianness, that say, moral or behavioral, spiritual, as opposed to physical appearance, does not make it actually less racial. Because at the heart of the idea of race is that there are certain characteristics that are actually born within someone that they have no control over. Right . That it is an inherited trait, right . And that is the essence of race. Now, arguing that those traits and characteristics of a group are superior to other groups is the essence of racism and that is absolutely what the Italian Fascist mission was. Dr. Bischof we will come back to this issue of racism but i thought it would be interesting for our audience to hear a bit about how the Italian School system in the fascist period was organized. Because i had a wife who used to be on the school board of lafourche parish. So i found out the School System here is organized on a local level. I grew up in austria and i did not know that in great detail. However, this is much like the austrian system, a statebound very centralized system. Maybe you could briefly explain that. Dr. Mclean sure. For those of you who do not know, some of the differences are merely by the fact that we live we have a federal government and it gives autonomy to our states and then some states give more autonomy to cities or counties. In italy, modern italy, the idea was that the ministry of education in rome made the rules, the curricular and policy decisions for the entirety of italy. That was especially true under mussolinis regime. Of course there were several loopholes to this. In theory, places like sicily or naples had no choice over what they could teach and for how long and what choices of books had. They but because italy, much of italy was very agricultural and rural, a lot of schools had less oversight and italy for a long time was very poor. So it gave a lot of control to what they called parastate organizations. Were semi autonomous, they were privately funded but organizationseen that ran schools, right . Various regions there were differences in oversight. But the main goal was that the state at large had control over all of the schools. They sent the people to oversee and control. Byt was being taught and whom. Dr. Bischof so the state would be responsible for adopting school books not local school or state school boards, and would also be responsible for hiring teachers. So the teachers had to sort of buy into this fascist idea of race, right . Dr. Mclean certainly, more over time. So the national they didnt have and this is one of the things that shows the evolution of fascism over time. They did not have state textbooks until the 1930s. Is afore the 1930s, there little bit more flexibility. But once we have the 1930s, there is increased centralization and there arent choices. Teachers in theory were supposed to buy in to all of the rhetoric and ideas of race, health, and prosperity that the state wanted them to. Dr. Bischof you talk a lot in your various chapters about the dynamic of fascism developing from the 1920s to the 1930s, itionou call the fascist of mussolinis policies, all the way to 1938 when it became too. Segmentic, it became more extreme. Can you talk about that dynamic from the 1920s to the 1930s, how it developed and became more extreme . Dr. Mclean sure. There are two aspects and one is more boring. Ill quickly talk about the more boring one which is educational policy. Saying, things just became a lot more centralized over time. They were continually trying to focus power in the state and state organizations. So there is that. But the more interesting one is the evolution of the pedagogy ideology, right . That, too, became tighter and more focused. So in the 1920s, we have to remember mussolini was the first fascist. No one had done this before. And so much of the 1920s was mussolini attempting to figure out what he was doing and figure out his control, how to gain control and keep it. And we see this also in the pedagogy, right . In the 1920s, much of the focus was just on highlighting what unified italians, what positively characterized the italian race, what their shared history, shared characteristics were. It was also when the state created two very important organizations. Here, i have forgotten my slideshow, sorry. We will move ahead. How how they are talking one of the fundamental ideas behind this sort of education, was that absolutely were born of the roman past, that they actually had the roman past in blood. It was the great latin blood that they had. But they also, we can go back to some of these images in a moment. In 1925, one of the organizations they developed to help this campaign, the racial campaign, was called omni and it was the organization for the protection of mothers and children. And this was a National PublicHealth Organization that was to protect, literally, protect mothers and children and dealt with sort of physical health. But then the next year, 1926, they also founded their Youth Organization. The fascists had a Youth Organization from the beginning balila organization opened in 1926. And it was meant as basically a boy scout Girl Scout Organization for all children between the ages of 8 to 18 to thethey moved on military. And later, as this image shows, it expanded to 6yearolds. And this was the afterschool organization. It was organized by gender, it was divided by gender. So boys, as you can see here, wore sort of military uniforms even at the age of 6 and those are little ms on the front for their spiritual and national mussolini. They were taught how to become little soldiers. How to march, how to exercise, how to think of themselves as thefuture soldiers of fatherland. Women also wore uniforms. They were primarily taught how to become mothers and wives of the fatherland. Right . So they were taught first aid and mothering techniques and how to clean house. So this is what happens in the 1920s. Once they had this established, things start increasing. Their focus on who is italian celebrating who is italian and reminding people that they have things in common. Because we have to remember that new country. Irly it only sort of united in the 1860s. And it has a lot of regional variation. So one of the key goals is to remind or tell italians that have more in common than they have different. By the early 1930s they are trying to remind or tell italians that to be a good italian is the same as being a good fascist. This fascist ition campaign is to eequate the italian race with the fascist race, right . If you are a good italian, if you embody the ideals of the italian race, you are embodying the ideals of the fascist italian. They developed this alongside increasingly restrictive ideas about who is italian and who is not. That isnt to say there have always been enemies of the right . Race, so they clearly can differentiate italians from subsaharan africans. But now they are increasingly reminding italians that germanic peoples and slavic peoples are not italian. Homosexuals are not italian. People who do not work hard are not italian. Alcoholic arent italian. Independent women are not italian. So there is this flexibility of what it means to be racial. By the mid1930s, we have the ethiopian war. Is anyone familiar with the eatingioethiopian war . Maybe a handful. In 1935, italy invades ethiopia. Sorry, i am getting into lecture mode. I apologize. But this was a key way for the fascist regime to have a very clear example of who is not italian, around which italians could identify and fight. And after that ill end this quickly. And after that, in 1936, mussolini realizes that they are still not united or strong as an italian race and they need to increasingly restrict the definition of who is italian. Dr. Bischof hard to imagine that people who drink are not good italians, which all of the alcohol they are giving us still. [laughter] yes, you are going into the ethiopian war and italians being the progeny of the roman empire, so how would you characterize the fascist idea of italy, of history . I found it interesting that they really make big jumps from the roman period to the renaissance period and many in between when there were foreign invaders often from germany and other ofts of europe they sort leave out. Can you talk about that . Dr. Mclean absolutely. Like all good nationalists of the period, the idea of dwelling on negative history was not popular. Right . So the focus was on the glory of italys past, primarily ancient rome, but also the renaissance and also the resurgimento which was the unification process movement. They argued the other things do didnt matter because ultimately invaders would always the italians down. But always rome would resurrect this innatese of superiority within their blood. So it did not matter, these others stumbles the italians had experienced over the centuries. Dr. Bischof in the mid1930s, you could say mussolini built an empire. Hadourse the italians properties in africa already, somaliland and libya. And now they initiate the war in ethiopia. How did that radicalize this italian idea of race, this empirebuilding strategy . Dr. Mclean so empire building, or the idea of empire had been part of the fascist rhetoric for a while. But this actual war that was both a symbol and a reality of the beginning of a new roman empire was incredibly powerful. In fact, most historians argue that 1935, 1936, during this war, is mussolinis most popular period of his entire 20 year reign. And it was sort of a reality for these lessons that children had been given now for a decade saying that you had to embody the best of the italian race so that you could go out and be soldiers, conquer this empire, and then rule it, right . So the war itself was a powerful tool, but it was also seen as only a beginning. It was not seen as the end, it was seen as the beginning of a new roman empire. And thereafter, students and fascists needed to figure out how to become rulers of that empire. Dr. Bischof so probably, and you argue this, too, that building the empire helped radicalize fascist racism further. You say 35, 38 is the ethiopian campaign, and then 38 there is this next step in the radicalization with the minister of education and writing laws that exclude jews from the italian body politic, if you will. So racism becomes antisemitic. That . U talk about dr. Mclean after 1936, the fascist state creates a series of laws in the empire and at home to make sure there were clear divisions between rulers and ruled, right . And in fact, while the italian empire is not studied nearly as well or as thoroughly as the french and the british empires, actually, the fascist regime created one of the most if not most thoroughly segregationist set of policies africa before apartheid south africa. And the fact that italians kept sort of blurring the lines between ruler and ruled meant at least to mussolini that they had not understood the importance of maintaining the strength of the italian race. Theotai wrote laws for School System in terms of out of thelian jews system. 1938, these antisemitic laws, it is important to note were part of a larger set of laws generally racist and intent and made clear for the first time and to great surprise of many people, that the italians were supposedly part of the arian race which they had never said before and they attempted to inject their racism with a kind of biological sort of phenotypical racism that had not been as prevalent in italian fascism before. Dr. Bischof was there an element of competition between mussolini and hitler in terms of radicalizing the antisemitic policy in italy . Dr. Mclean i dont think in terms of antisemitism there was competition. Oftentimes the argument has been that mussolini passed antisemitic laws simply because pressuredor hitler him to and there is no evidence of that. In fact, there is evidence that hitler did nothing of the sort. Came in isompetition that mussolini thought that he was the mentor. Ofsolini was the father fascism. Hitler looked up to him for a long time, mussolini thought he was a buffoon who would never go anywhere. Then in the 1930s, hitler turns out to do quite a bit of damage on his own. And by the late 1930s, mussolini is quite concerned actually that hitler is going to leave him in the dust. So there is particularly we see in the spanish civil war, of 19361939, and then getting into world war ii, sense of this oneupsmanship is much more prevalence. Dr. Bischof let me come to my last couple of questions. Mussolini does not only want to build the mediterranean roman empire into africa. The also trying it across adriatic into albania and greece doesnt do so well. And the nazis have to bail him out. Let me come back to the point you made at the beginning that fits in here, of course, the reputation of italian soldiers is they did not fight to their death for mussolini once italy entered the war, too, in 19401941. What is your view about that . I know you write about in the book. Paragraph at the end. What is the performance of the italians given the deep indoctrination of children who have now become the soldiers in the 1930s. Why does it work out so badly for mussolini . Dr. Mclean that is a complicated question i cannot thoroughly answer either with my training or just because of time constraints. I do think, again, the comparison, certainly italian casualty rates did not reach german or soviet or japanese casualty rates in world war ii, but they still lost 10 of their combat troops in world war ii for an american comparison, is about how many had in thethe u. S. Vietnam war. Which was pretty debilitating for the u. S. So you can imagine, its not like they all fled and didnt fight. Nd they actually did there were plenty of them who died for country. Whether that was for an ideal, i dont know. But i also think it is hard to say how many soldiers of any nation joined up and died because of a specific doctrine in and of itself. That being said, i think there were plenty of italian children, and by children i mean 17 and 16yearolds, who joined the military early because they believed in this. There were a lot of italians who joined in the Italian Military for the spanish civil war and the etheoethiopian war. World war ii was not popular. Italy was not prepared. Mussolini was not ready. He did not think fighting what would happen until 1942. He had also spent most of his military war chest and material in ethiopia and spain. So there are a lot of complicating factors, only one of which is the question of how indoctrinated the children, the generations were. And even if an 11yearold writes in their schoolbook they would die for their country, that is a long way from when they actually have to be on the battlefield and they are starving and riddled with and freezing and having to figure out how to do that. Dr. Bischof let me ask you my last question and then throw it to the audience to ask more questions. I know you dont write a lot about world war ii, you end the book in 1940, but you mention in the conclusion that italy drops out of the war in 1943 and in 1945 the war is over. And in italy comes a period of what happens after the war, how do you deal with the war after the war. I think it raises the question the School System has been for now 20 years proffering this kind of ideology that weve been talking about. The teachers were teaching it in schools. So how do you then go to a republican italy and a new School System that teaches new values rather than fascist values . In germany and austria after the war, there was a period of denazification. Of defascistriod ification . Dr. Mclean the short answer is no. Because italy was in the weird position of having gotten out of the war in 1943 and claiming to whomever would listen that they actually fought on the side of the allies in the end. So there was this awkward situation in 1945, especially because it had a very active resistance movement, of what to do with the former fascists. Because, of course, italy been fascistadnt since 1943. But a lot of administrators were the same administrators who had been in power in 1939. Right . But we also see by 1960, a majority of judges in italy, had been judges under the fascist period. So there was no defascisization. There were very few war trials in italy. And in terms of education, the process of defascicizing the was very superficial. In part because of finances. They could not afford new books. But part of it was ideological. What they did, they got rid of the books that had the most ardent and clear language, racial language. So the antisemitism. Really just the antisemitism and the overt mentions of fascism. Otherwise, if it was just talking about the spiritual strength of the italian nation and italian people, that was fine. Dr. Bischof part of my final question was also about the issue of memory. You started out with that when you were in bologna, you learned about the italian resistance, and of course, italian memory was much like french and german and austrian memory, they all wanted to have been resistors after the war and they were not. How would you characterize italian memory of the war . Have they come around to accept wereact that many of them fascist, too . Dr. Mclean italy has gone through a variety of periods of reckoning and denial of their fascist past in terms of officially. Right . And culturally, as we see in films, a change over time. But, um it is true that in northern italy, there was a significant resistance movement, and, in fact, a lot of the resistors had been fascist, too. Not all of the fascists remained sort of under the party of the nazis when the nazis occupied northern italy. So it is more complicated picture, and if they can latch onto that image, they can deny the other part. I talked to a wine store owner a few years ago and i was joking with him, which tourists did he like less, the germans or americans . He said clearly the germans, we fought against them. There is this idea, the denial of everything that happened before 1943 that is quite striking. Dr. Bischof thank you, dr. Mclean. We will throw it to the audience for questions. Thank you very much. Dr. Mclean thank you. [applause] we will get to the questions from the audience before we get to those online. If you subtract world war ii, say you are in 1938, how did the world and italians feel about their educational system . Did they think that it had improved . Did everybody think it was going off the rails . Dr. Mclean thats a good question. The question is was the Education System going off of the rails or did they think positively or negatively about the Education System . I think generally, the view was positive, not necessarily because they were thinking about the pedagogy in it, in terms of the racial ideation of who italians are. Mussolini built record numbers of schools and summer camps, particularly, that were free for kids who were poor going to the mountains the seaside. The Public Health initiatives, free lunches for kids, and also giving Cod Liver Oil and all of these things and just general checkups. That was remarkably positive. In fact, the Education System is one of the ways they were also able to teach people about malaria and italy was able to eradicate malaria within a decade after world war ii. So in terms of the infrastructure, sort of like mussolini allowed the trains to right, that was great. In terms of the pedagogy itself, i dont have a real answer for that. But it is a good question. What was the association between mussolinis School Districts in terms of his relationship on and off again with pope pius the 11th . Was the pedagogy different in the catholic School System, and how so, and how did they resolve that . Dr. Mclean thats an important point. The issue of the Catholic Church particularly because the 1929, aax are signed in major for those of you who latterrin tax is what basically established the vatican city as a country. Importantly to mussolini, for the first time, Catholic Church officially recognized the the kingdom of iy nation. Ereign the Catholic Church had not its own that italy was country since it unified, which was a major problem for an overwhelmingly catholic population, right. Mussolini had to have a fairly handsoff approach with the Catholic Church and catholic education. It is true that people who were antifascist often found refuge in Catholic Schools and the catholic Youth Programs that mussolini allowed to continue. That is not to say there were not extraordinary tensions between them and real efforts on both sides to push back. Absolutely, that was tight. But mussolini did allow, or mandated religion to be taught all public schools, too, by lay teachers. Just to answer the question that gunter posed about memory, there is an official italian for world war ii. February. E 10th for commemorated for the changing of the border that occurred in 1947. It is a divided one. What you tend to get is people who are descendents of the some azuly themselves. A lot of them were very young the they left parts of meet wheretic, they the however, others remember the italian participation in the holocaust. So the other half meet at another location. I would argue it is very much a divided memory. My first question is really, ins corridor is initiated 2005, so comparatively recently. . Hy so late my second question is about the image you had, if we could have it back. It was the image yes. When italy invades abyssinia, as it is known, then one of the justifications for it is they are going there to free slaves. Now, this appears to be an image of slaves being freed. Correct me if im wrong. Could you tell us a little bit about how this discourse of freeing the slaves was pursued. Did it come to an educational level in primary schools or was it just something said at the league of nations . Dr. Mclean sure, clearly you about the day of memory for world war ii than i do. What i would say is the more popular and well attended day is the day of partisans on april 25, which is a national holiday, and is celebrated all over italy. I think that certainly the initiation of the della corridor the late date is the mixed memory ambivalenthe very feelings that italians have over. Orld war ii in terms of the invasion of ethiopia or abyssinia, yes, one of the major lines of argument was that ethiopia still had slavery and therefore they were barbarians and therefore were should be controlled by a better civilization. In part, this is a narrative that is furthered by the fact that ethiopia is a member of the league of nations, but only provisionally. The provision is that ethiopia is supposed to get rid of slavery. Mussolini argues he has a right to invade because they dont. Of course, once he invades, he frees the slaves and then has them working for the fascists, right . So its not really freeing the slaves. In fact, its much more like this postcard and others, where have images of kicking hill. Slasy down a. Hats what i would say can you speak to the fact that there were i dont know was more than one. Camp. Ere was at least one it was in the trieste area, i dont know if there were others but the notion of that and how the rationale, the mixed memory bit that we discussed a minute ago. I was curious. Dr. Mclean yeah. So, part of the argument for italians not being racist and particularly the antisemitism being imposed upon them, one of the arguments is that no jews were ever deported from fascist occupied territories until after 1943. But there were concentration camps and italy. Now, the death camp near trieste was the only death camp, but the italians say it doesnt exist because it was occupied by germany at that point and italian. Its not but the concentration camps that were fascistrun, organized, were not death camps, and again, by comparison, they were quite humane, right, in terms of comparisons to our general image of, say, auschwitz. Walled. So they could wear their own clothing, they could have packages sent to them. But by any other measure, they were pretty notoriously miserable places where both italian jews and foreign jews were kept after 1938. One more question here. You partially answered part of my question in relation to somebody else, but i wanted to know how italy regarded itself as a colonial power both in relation to the french with arab north africa, and the british and the germans and the french and black africa. Dr. Mclean so, pre1936 well, throughout, they think of themselves as more humane. They think of themselves like the french, as sort of catholic colonizers and think of themselves as people more than or the british do, that they are there to civilize theyrepulations and there just to help them realize the great riches of their lands, right . A. K. A. , take them. But the reality is much more stark, and, in fact, the wars in libya and ethiopia are some of the most gruesome of the period, and, in fact, it was during the ethiopian invasion that they used was the first use of poison gas dispersed by an airplane in history. And they did it over red cross hospitals. There was no, um there was very little humanity to this, right . And similar in the libyan sort of the what am i trying to say the attempt to get rid of the libyan uprising from the in the 1920s. So while mussolini at home argued they were more humane and civilized than the french or british or germans, the reality is much different. Please join me in thanking both dr. Mclean and dr. Bischof for such an engaging conversation. Dr. Mclean thank you so much for coming out. It gives you an idea of how truly enmeshed and insidious the fascist states were during world war ii. Thank you for sharing your insights and findings with us, and dr. Bischof, thank you for so ably leading the conversation tonight. Dr. Mclean will sign copies of her book at the back of the room, and be sure to mark your calendars and check our website for our litany of programming. Our next meet the Author Program will be unique as we celebrate the life and work of one of our own, hugh ambrose, who we lost far too soon in 2015. Hughs book, liberated spirits, published posthumously, has recently been have ad and we will program on it on tuesday, february 19. Im sure well see many of you there. But lets return to dr. Eden mclean. Even though this was your first appearance at a museum program, i certainly hope it will not be your last. Please join me in giving a last round of applause to our guests. [applause] [captions performed by national captioning institute] [captions Copyright National cable satellite corp. 2020] this is American History tv, nations past every weekend on cspan3. Each week American History tvs you archivalbrings films that provide context for issues. Public affairs city, a w. P. A. Housing demolition project is underway which will greatly improve the Living Conditions of families of moderate means. In many other cities of the old tenements and fire away to makeared room for modern buildings with sanitary apartments. At the Colonial Park in harlem, other congested areas, w. P. A. Workers have constructed a huge Swimming Pool and are completing a bath house in this construction project, skilled workers are employed, utilizing the knowledge of their trades gained in the days before depression. Arewimming pools particularly valuable to the community because they offer a haven of relaxation to young and the hot summer months. Time, Swimming Pools remove children from the crowded city streets, providing every safeguard to prevent such tragedies as were all too common swimming holes. Typical of the Park Improvement projects underway all over the feature ofanother the improvement feature at Colonial Park. Byading pool has been built w. P. A. Workers in which the youngsters may splash to their hearts content. New additions to the playground bya have been made possible the grating and improvement of that were oncerk decorative. , in many parts of the country Nursery Schools have been adapted for 10,000 children of needy families. Provide play activities and excellent training. Foroyment has been provided 600 teachers, dietitians, and cooks. Next, we hear from president lyndon b. Johnson, who traveled to Johns Hopkins university in the spring of 1965 to explain american policy in vietnam. , he posedised speech the question, why must we take this painful road . He went on to declare that the u. S. Would not be defeat