Part of a twoday symposium hosted by the National World war i museum and memorial in kansas city, missouri. I would like to introduce our next speaker of the day, dr. An associate, professor of history at the United States army command and general Staff College at Fort Leavenworth kansas. Prior to this position, he was an active duty marine Corps Officer and retired in 2009 as a Lieutenant Colonel after 22 years of service. Today, we have the honor to welcome his welcome him for his talk that will explain how forces battled for air superiority during world war i. Listen truly for how he will how skyfought battles lead to the modern development of the concept of total war. Welcomeoin me in a warm for dr. John curatola. Thank you. I appreciate the introduction. If you notice when she went down my biography, im a marine officer who works at an army school who studies airpower, so i have kind of a schizophrenic background on that. Today, we will look at airpower as it pertains to 1916. First, i will have to walk you a development of how do we get to airpower during this year. We dont know what the heck to do with airplanes prior to the war. Everybody is kind of interested in them in some way, shape, or form, but how will we use these funny looking machines in future wars . This is something everybody is trying to come to grips with during this time. Let me give you a couple of quotes on the confusion that abounds about airplanes. Before the war, these gentlemen have this to say. Underscores the idea of confusion with regard to airplanes and what they do. Texts to take a look at is the historical context, and we start seeing these machines in the air as early as, of course, the american civil war. We see them in the u. K. , in sudan, south africa, and as 1899. As may an International Treaty says that there will be a prohibition that the discharge of any kind of projectile or explosion from a balloon, so we are already starting to think that maybe you can use these things as weapons of war in an offensive manner. As the turnofthecentury comes around, germans are already looking at the idea of the zeppelin as a potential weapon in war. All European Countries are largely interested in aviation at the turnofthecentury. Matter of fact, the french kind its importance after the Wright Brothers take off and thats why today you have terms like fuselage with a french connotation because they are the people who started developing aviation tooled much greater degree than we in the u. S. By 1910, most powers decided some kind of desired some kind of aerial armament. You have aircraft being used in wars between the italians and the turks, by the french in morocco, and in the balkan wars, but again, the question remains there is no precedent using the things, so how will they be used in the future . Will the engine noise be in issue . These are things we just do not know. As the war starts, the u. K. Has around 80 aircraft, germany around 200, and france about the same number, so we have these things and are not really quite sure what to do with them, but the idea of working in arguably the third dimension has some interesting applications to it. One of the things we see is this idea of aerial reconnaissance and observation. If you are looking for a man flying kite, there you go. Im not sure how he gets out of it, but there we go. Again, this idea of using airplanes for observation is really the primary role as we get into the war of 1914. Most do this by balloon. The french will make about 4000 balloons during the war. The germans about 2000. Operated by an altitude of about 4000 feet, you can see a good 15 miles, and if you have a trained observer who is familiar with his sector, he can notice slight changes in the terrain. Theres a new position over here, aesh dirt over new unit over here, so there is a lot of value to be gained by having these balloons in a stationary position with the same people looking at this ground over time. This actually works out very the armies atof this time, but when you get to airplanes themselves, think about the dynamic casting that you can do with these things. These things can be flown to of the front as the need arises. As a matter of fact, aerial observation starts very early in the war. Its airplanes the first notice the split between the first and second german armies. They make that turn toward the southeast. They are also important when they notice the difference between the first and Second Russian armies during the 10 number campaign on the east. Aviation almost from the getgo is playing a significant role in the war as it unfolds, and this will become more and more important, this observation piece, as time goes on. The mission of the bombing is in the forefront even before the war begins. H g wells put together his book the war in the air where japan and china are in a confederation and germany is the aggressive power. The u. K. Is the global power and the u. S. Is split between state and federal rights. He talks about aerial engagements over the niagara, dogfights. Theres already some ideas out there about this idea of bombing, and as early as 1914, the italians and the russians already have built longrange strategic aircraft. When aircraft has a range of 340 four miles and can fly up to 75 miles an hour and this is at the beginning of the war. Fliescture you see here from kiev to moscow, which is about 1400 miles, and it can stay aloft as much as eight hours, so we are already advancing military aviation to a large degree because of this interest in bombing. The germans are also interested in this, and they go the way of the dirigible or zeppelin, if you want to use that word. They see this as a way to counter the royal navys presents. Britannia rules the waves and i have great power protection they have great power protection. These things are looked at to go longrange. 30 miles plus behind enemy lines. We are going to start developing the idea of strategic compartment during this time as well. Already, this idea of strategic apartment is coming to the four even before the war begins. Lets talk about this because i find this fascinating. Due tohe balloons float hydrogen, which is highly flammable, as we all know, from the hindenburg videos, the thing is how do you build a membrane that can trap and hold hydrogen so it does not leak out . They came up with is cow intestines, and they take the intestine of a cow and cut it up into pieces. Then they went the intestine. They lay it on top of each other, and as it dries, it a wonderful seal. These things are about 11 million square, so you need make one,000 cows to zeppelin. Given the possible food in the german home come and you can see there is a little bit of conflict between making zeppelins and heating germans. Take that home with you and talk to your friends and see if they know what zeppelins are made out of. This idea of longrange strategic apartment with regard thise zeppelin again, is largely a navy effort and captain Peter Strasser is the head of the Navy Zeppelin effort, and here is his and coming with our theme regarding the ideas of , chillers and children. They are accepting these ideas early on, this idea of total warfare. Ironically enough, he will be killed in the last zeppelin raid of 1918 over london. This idea of set and going long will also lay the framework for ideas regarding strategic bombardment and the idea that it will create local panic. That it will create such a panic within people at home and on the home front and in these cities that they will not be able to with this. Punch anywhere in 9, 1915, the first zeppelin raid appears and kills about 10 people. Not a lot of people, but it does cause some death and some damage and the first raid over london is going to kill about seven. Again, this is a small number of people, but the effect, they are hoping, will be cascading. And we are laying the foundation for what happens in the second world war. You can see most of these zeppelin attacks will occur during 1916. The gentleman you see here will actually shoot down the first settlement over london. Here is a photograph of it. In view of the londoners. This is a big morale boost here on september 2, 1960. Thats 19th dickstein. There is a problem shooting zeppelins down. Not ahistorian, scientist, but i will drop a little science on you. You have hydrogen and this big balloon. How do you shoot these things down . If you use a regular full it, you create a whole. All right, that is not a big enough whole for all the hydrogen to leak out, so how do i destroy this . Its a science project, and they maybe we ought to put in high explosive rounds to make a big hole. As it does work, but you are still not bringing the zeppelin down. Then they realize, what if we put incendiary rounds in . Going back to your basic voice scout or girl scout boy scout is yourscout, what basic triangle . If you put an incendiary round with a high explosive round, it will make a whole big enough, in the incendiary round goes in and it will slide off the hydrogen. They have to come to the idea of he rounds with their machine guns and it takes a while to finish this science project. Lets say you are flying at 5000 feet and youre going to go to london and drop your bombs. What if there is a cloud layer at, say, 1000 eight or 2000 eight . And this is the day before gps, the day before Navigation Systems and thus kinds of things, so how do you know where you are at . Well, we have a solution for that. The sky car. I will lower somebody down about 500 seat on a cable with a phone so he can talk to the people back up in the zeppelin itself. Is probably the lowest man on the totem pole who was put in the sky car as it goes down and they were in this thehere it is time to pull sky car back up and they got bunched up in the cables. That did happen. Aircraft this largely comes about because, as we have seen, this is largely an artillery war. We want to prevent our enemy from seeing where our locations are. Maybe we need to start shooting down or preventing observation aircraft from observing our line. 22, 1914,s august guys are starting to bring up rifles and shoot at each other. Yes, thats how air war begins. Guys shooting at each other. Somebody i do like is to scare his german counterpart, took an old record player, the megaphone part of it, and aims it at the german to make him think he has a large caliber weapon. I think that is a unique way of doing things, but pursuit aircraft start to be born over time. In april 19, a frenchman it quips and aircraft with a the problem isd you have this big fan in front of you. To this propeller without shooting your own propeller or . One of the things they will come orwith his a propeller guard a piece of metal they will attach onto the propeller. Just throw the round one way or another as a strike propeller. Problem is ricochets turn to go wherever the hell they want to include your phones engine. It also reduces the efficiency. F the propeller or about 30 leasesuit aviation grows, more and more of these organizations that are purely design just for fighters. The germans will start consolidating their fighters into distinctive unit, pursuit squadrons, antifrench will their owncurrent with Fighter Squadron because we want to prevent enemies from seeing our location, we need units that are specifically designed to do the counter reconnaissance role, so we will be the advent of these kinds of organizations. Also, the gentleman you see here going to codify the first few fighter combat that still exist today, quite frankly. The technologies change, i get that, but many of the ideas and he puts down and paper are still with us today and hes the first to write these down, and he shares these with the members of his squadron. Hes a very innovative aviator during this time, and his legend still resonates today, and here is an idea he puts forward try to keep the sun behind you to blind your enemies. Fire at close range. Always keep your eye on your opponent because its very easy to lose these airplanes. Its a small airplane but a big sky. He is the first to kind of codify some ideas. Never forget your line of retreat. Attack your opponent from behind. If your opponent dives on you, do not dive down. Fly up to meet it. Germans will establish a Fighter Pilot school in 1960, 3 or four speed onget guys up to fighter tactics. This is something the british and the french to some degree. The germans have the best training of all the powers at this time. German pilots could have about 60 hours of flight training. Your british pilot has about 20. The quality of instruction is a mixed bag if you are on the outline side. These aircraft are not very stable. You have to fly these airplanes, and you cannot just set the trends have, take your hands off, and let it fly around like you and a modern airplane. These things are very unstable. , in 1950, this really becomes a war about technology. Engine horsepower, aerodynamic characteristics of these airplanes is important. On the strategic level, the british and french are going to aircraft engines by far than with the germans can possibly keep up with. The germans, as we know, have a strategic shortfall in natural resources. They will stick with a sickly mostame type of engine for of the fourth. They have a few, but they stick with the same one. They will make refinements. It will get more powerful, up to about 200 or 210 horsepower as for thegoes on, but end, the allies are producing 200, 3 hundred, 500 horsepower engines because they have the resources. Its interesting what you see in terms of Aircraft Development is the germans have innovations with regard to aerodynamics because they have less powerful engines, while the allies filled aircraft that are very powerful and less dynamic, so theres kind of a trade with regard to overall philosophy in the. Evelopment of airplanes and of course, airplanes are temperamental things. I love this quote. Now, as early as 1911, depending on who you read, this idea of an to solve theear problem of a propeller in front of a machine gun, is drawn up. Who draws it up . Disputeheres lots of about this. Some say it is a swiss engineer working for a german aircraft company. Read ands on who you which side you want to take, but the point here is in may of 1915, it makes its debut, and its the first true Fighter Aircraft. The pilot can in the aircraft along with the machine gun along an axis and shoot down an attacker as opposed to shooting off to the side or trying to have a ring mount on the back while somebody else flies, and that makes the aircraft heavier. This is the consummation of a machine gun and aircraft. Max edelman, another famous german aviator, will score the first kill in august 1915. This at the time is top secret, hushhush. We do not want anyone to know about this. The germans will keep all of their Fighter Aircraft on their side of the line. Do not want these things getting in the hands of the allies. Also, for most of the war, the germans will fight it and said air war. Not necessarily going deep with the Fighter Pilot observation, they are staying on their side of the line to keep their allies from seeing their position. The interrupter gear is a huge advancement in terms of this air war and the Technology Associated with it. I love this story. Before the interrupter gear gets established, this gentleman right here you see him hanging onto his aircraft there this unfortunate pilot is flying along one day and takes on a german aviator. His gun on his top weighing he runs out of ammunition, so he decides he needs to change the drum out, so he reaches up and is trying to get the drum off of his gun. As hes doing this, he is using both hands. As he is doing this, the plane flips inverted. He is not wearing his seatbelt, so he is Stuck Holding onto the magazine he was just trying to get off. He is dangling underneath his aircraft with his magazine holding him to be airplane. He is finally able to swing his heat into the cockpit, and as he does that, he damages some of the instruments, but he gets himself back in there, writes his aircraft back up, but he gets back home. The moral of the story is he gets chewed out by his squadron co for damaging the aircraft. In this picture, you can see the on thatr guard aircraft. Again, it throws the rounds one way or another. This idea of this interrupter gear is going to begin what we call the fokker scourge. Bear with me, folks. Were getting there. The germans at this time have an invincible aerial weapon, and as military men, we tend to make our enemies look bigger than they really are. During this time, you will see the world flying corps lose about 20 aircraft in about 49 men. Again, compared to what we see in the first war, thats not a big number, but aviation is just coming into its own during this time, and the germans will own air superiority until the early parts of 1916 with the allies start producing the newport 11 and the dh two. Is a flimsy looking machine, only flies about 80 miles per hour, and its not nearly as maneuverable as some of the other planes that will come to succeed it, but this thing is that it forces the allies to change up some of their tactics, meaning they have to fly in formation now to protect each other. The germans are looking to bleed the french as much as possible. Them duringrtant to this flight is the counter reconnaissance mission. The germans are going to throw much of their airpower and support into this sector. The German Air Service sees a requirement for local air superiority and is going to aircraft, which is a large number at that time, fieldvide them into attachments. Hes also going to throw in for zeppelins for deep recon and what we refer to today as battlefield air and addiction looking for targets beyond the. Ombat zone the germans will also establish their specialized fighter. Quadrons you have to love the german language. The language of war. Used specifically for keeping the allies off of the german line. Is oswaldng to happen realizes we have a problem with the airplane. It is a good plan for its time, has aeping planes aloft price to pay in terms of aircraft and in terms of pilots. Remember, these are not highquality engines. Kinds of to have all problems. Instead of having aircraft aloft 24 7, what if i went to my forward observers and had a phone line and when they saw and allied aircraft taking off, they called me up, and then i could take off. I could have planes ready without the wear and tear of keeping them aloft. So you are starting to see this idea of advanced early warning. Obviously rudimentary. These aircraft are going to do aerial guard duty. An aire trying to create blockade to keep the british on their side of the line. Playermans are starting to not only with individual specific squadrons but also starting to refine missions. Fighters, observers, and then, of course, bombers as the war goes on. Counter. H will i said before they are going to start putting their newport 11 plus out there, which is a very fast aircraft. Does not have an interrupter. The machine gun sits on top of the wing and shoots over it. Butterflies and about 100 miles an hour. It has a significant advantage in terms of speed. One of the things the french realize is the german observation balloons are important to the artillery barrages the germans are throwing at the french. One of the things the french will come up with is the first range of air to air missiles. They will put rockets on the support struts of their newport as shoot at the german observation balloon, so you start to have air to air combat with rockets as early as 1916. During may of 1916, you will have a coordinated attack between the french aviation byets and the ground assets trying to knock the balloons out of the air with the rockets at the Ground Forces go forward. You are starting to see care ground cooperation in a way you have never seen it. There is a maturation with regards to the aviation. Also, the french get on this , andof fighter squads individual guys going out and hunting and killing as opposed observing or spotting the artillery. You are seeing Fighter Squadrons for the french in response to german development. Ets fastforward for an frame, but they are doing a lot better now. They start this campaign with a over german ratio aircraft. Will also start tasking specific aircraft to support specific Ground Forces. They will have a recon wing indirect support of an army corps, a fighter wing and a longrange recon wing indirect support of each army. The british are so effective with their initial push that the army says the enemy aircraft ofe troops a feeling helplessness, such was their mastery of air. One of the things the germans realize is that they, too, need to have some kind of autonomy with regard to the aviation asset. In october, germans will finally establish an german air force. Not completely independent as we know it today, but what you see is a change in the relationship between the Ground Forces and the Aviation Assets themselves. Aviators on staff are no longer just advisors. They become commanders. They are not necessarily wedded to the ground fight. It also answers to the german high command. They are starting to become their own entity during this time. In independent unit with highperformance aircraft to clear the skies of enemy and he will get the best german aircraft coming off the production line at this time and put in some of the best. Ilot the new albatross the germans come out with, which you see the toture there, is superior what the allies have, and they the skies of the royal flying corps aircraft. The royal flying corps is going to lose a lot of aircraft, and for a lot of reasons. One of them is training. German aviators getting 60 hours. Your royal flying corps component is not getting the same kind of training. Of course, theres a perspective. Everything is relative. Lets talk about the men, since i heart on that a little bit here. Drones on into 1916 remember, this is supposed to be short, quick, and we will be victorious. Now we are going on two years. There is a Public Perception regarding the war. We need to bolster public support for this war, and were going to start looking at this idea of knights of the air becoming individual popular heroes on both sides of the war. This idea of knights of the air fighting chivalrous leak and giving each other mercy is largely action. Is a fight between the french gentleman and a famous german pilot. They do get into a scrap. Ones gun jams and the other let them go. That is the exception, not the rule at this time. Heres the reality of the air war. One pilot accounts that one year of air combat is equal to three because normal living it is so draining. Interestingly enough, the gentleman who makes this comment he has a patient for inflating his claims in the first world war, but we believe that a loan. We talked about the ideas that were put together as a result of experience, he is awarded the blue max early in 1960, and here is a picture of him looking like a very dashing knight of the air. Hes going to die in october of a midair collision with another squadron mate, unfortunately. Just before he passes, thats what he looks like. He is an old man. This talks to the human toll of this war. Granted, aviators are a very small toll given the large amount of deaths we see, but it on those whoa toll lived relatively better than their ground counterparts. As we start closing out, we see that technology is getting to be in issue. Introduction, the interrupter gear, the faster, moreof capable airframes. In 1917, you will start to see faulkner tried edgar coming about. You will see more and more powerful engines, better aircraft construction, more higher power. This is going to be a continuation for the next few years, and quite frankly, into the air war years, we will see the same thing. We start off not quite sure what we will do with aviation. We will keep it in the observation piece, but then it becomes this idea of maybe strategic compartment. Organizationloping that fell that requirement over time. We see a maturation on only of machines, but the organizations in the mission sets we assign them during this time. We also start seeing the development of air ground , as i mentioned with the french sending up aircraft to the german balloons to blind them. Later, you will have aviation along with army, infantry, artillery. You start to see modern, and a french or german officer in 1917 would understand what they are doing in a contemporary fight with all of these coming together for synergy with regard to combat power. As i mentioned, too, the development of specialized aircraft. We are laying the foundation to what we will see in the interwar for what the respective air forces will do in their doctrines. Big lessons they will take away from the first war is this idea of strategic bombardment. We saw what happened in england when we dropped bombs on them. Maybe we can break the enemys will by bombing cities and factories and those kinds of things. Hat will resonate foundationsg the here for the use of aviation in larger campaigns that cub that come subsequent to the first world war. With that, i will open the floor to any questions you may have. [applause] dr. Curatola yes, sir . I have heard conflicting statements through the years about how difficult or how easy it is to shoot a balloon down or a zeppelin, either one. On one hand, yeah, its easy to shoot it down. No, its not because you are flying so fast will go past it. Whats the truth on that . This istola again, largely a science project, but let me give you a little background. The aircraft they are flying is a relatively slow aircraft, but its very stable, meaning if i want to shoot my gun, i can take. Y hand off the stick and aim as a result, you have an integration between machine and. An that is new it may look like a big target, but the thing is, it is still hard to close with and destroy hit with enough rounds because you know, bullets do not fly straight. They tend to go in Different Directions and wind and those kinds of things. It is still problematic, and even if you do hit, are you hitting it with enough rounds to explosive cause an explosion . This is something the royal flying corps learns over time and as time goes on, it becomes easier and easier for them to do that. The german zeppelin core has the allest casualty rate of german services. Theres less of them i get that but their vulnerability increases as time goes on. By 1917, they have largely stopped most of the zeppelin raids and they transition to bombing aircraft the german army puts out and the zeppelin rates fall off. It depends on what time of the war you are asking that question. Early on, hard. Later on, not so hard. Answer your question, sir . Thank you. Dr. Curatola yes, sir . [inaudible] have a problematic issue with the climb rate . In other words, once they observed because to climb to a reasonable altitude, it might be beyond 25 or 30 minutes. Dr. Curatola absolutely. When you only have an 80horsepower engine, which your car probably has more horsepower than these things. There is a factor you have to take into consideration. You probably had to give more specific information as to what they estimated his altitude was. Youre right, these are not highspeed aircraft at the time, so there is a problem, but i have no doubt he was already figuring that math out to a certain extent, to answer your question. Yes, sir . You commented earlier about the germans investing more in training for their fighter the concern for protecting air assets. The pilot may have been the greatest asset they had at this point. When where parachutes introduced . Very goodla question. Thats a great question. Parachutes from the german perspective start getting , 19oduced later on the war 17, 1918. The allies do not want them. The balloon guys have parachutes because they are sitting targets. The allies do not like them because you will love this answer if you have a way out of your airplane, maybe you are not willing to fight. If i give you a parachute, you have an out. If you dont have a parachute, guess what . Youve got to fight. The germans will have the new the end of the war. The germans start introducing these things later on in the war where the allies do not want to touch the things except for the balloon guy. You can see with there is a little packet off to the side of the basket. The guy just kind of jumps out pulls out ofhute this little container off to his side. Does that answer your question, sir . Our second to last question comes from this way. Dr. Curatola yes, maam . I had several, so i will be quick. Approximately how Many Americans joined the french and english core before the war started . I read the figure about 5000 before the war started. Got me on that one. Im sorry, i do not know the answer. I get another question then . Yes, man. La no problem. Up almost forgotten it. About how many different airplanes were developed during the war . Dr. Curatola wow, that is also a 10 off youve take me down twice. Thanks for that. Theres also a proverbial. Lphabet soup i cannot imagine trying to catalog everything. I would say it is probably in the hundreds. If i was to guess on the number of airplanes on both sides of the equation. Twice,e paid me down maam. You win. You win the prize. Pinned me down twice. I have an easier question. When going after the zeppelins, what kind of protection did they have . Dr. Curatola none. There it is. Its hard enough hearing. Itting this little dirigible werther guys that got hit . Yeah, probably, i would guess, but the thing is, youre going after the larger target because it is the easiest thing to hit. Again, their casualty rates of any germansof during this time. Thats a rotten answer, but it is best one ive got for you. Is that is it. That is it. Ladies and children, please join me in thanking dr. John curatola. [applause] thehe cymer seven marks 75th anniversary of the japanese attack on pearl harbor. This weekend on American History tv, we are teaching programs remembering that day. Sunday afternoon at 4 00 p. M. Eastern, a u. S. Army film knowed by hank capra, your enemy japan portraying japan as a nation determined to rule the world through military conquest. When the factories were producing for japans military war machine, the rest of the world would fall like a right plum. Just after 5 00 on oral history, survivors of the uss arizona where 100,000 crewmen theykilled recalled what witnessed on that day. At 6 00 eastern on american artifacts the missouri was actually commissioned in 1944 and saw sheon in the pacific, but is often remembered for one event, the surrender of japan at tokyo bay. For our complete American History tv schedule, go to www. Cspan. Org. We are in teddy, arizona. Bit less than 10 of decades ago, this helps revitalize cities downtown. Next, American History tv takes a closer look at the early growth of the tempe area. In,ere getting ready to go which really takes us from world war ii in the end of world war ii and that population explosion that brought so many folks here to the valley, which encompasses many different cities, including tempe. You have a war ii, lot of folks who traveled through here, trained here, or were stationed here that were now looking for a new way of life. What really was a game changer in terms of the population was that postwar boom. Part of that was people taking of housing. You had communities where you had multiple houses being built on what was farmland and then being converted to a planned community. People could move here and buy a house much cheaper than they could elsewhere and it had the benefit of being a brandnew house that you had custombuilt for you with tweaks and all the things you wanted in your house and all the things you wanted to control your life in a much different way and a much more suburban way. You had the little nucleus of the downtown, but then everything around that was suburbs. One of the other factors in that postwar boom was the Economic Growth that was happening. Early on, there were the five cs of arizona copper cloth copper, cattle, climate. You had these going toward manufacturing, tourism, other services as well as construction was a huge economic boom. You had a backward of cooling, which this would have filled up with water and air would have been blown through it because it was so dry that the conditions of humidity would have cooled the air down, but it did not do as good a job. Then you have this, which was brought to arizona via motorola, but it made its way not just from that industrial use but then every home started having its own airconditioning as well , and that really caused was one of the major factors. Before that, it was really the weather that preventive folks from being here year round, but with the addition of airconditioning, you now have the ability to control your own climate in the house. Arizona is a state that is still very much finding itself. It is a new state. Celebrated 100t years of statehood, and with that, we are still trying to grow. You have the postwar boom that happened. We have another right we have another explosion of population going right now. This weekend, we are featuring the history of tempe, arizona, together with our Cox Communication cable partners. Learn more about tempe and other spots on our cities tour at www. Cspan. Org citiestour. All weekend every weekend on cspan3. This year marks the 75th anniversary of japans 1941 attack on pearl harbor. Thehotta, a fellow of Graduate Center for policy studies in tokyo talks about her countdown to941, infamy. It talks about the past and the japanese perspective. Speaking with historian ian buruma, she talks about events that the to the attack and the Political Landscape that theuded two authorities, emperor and the civilian government. This was recorded in 2013 at the Carnegie Council for ethics and affairs in new york city. It is about 50 minutes. Ian buruma
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