Barth. I am a history professor at Arizona State university. With two very stellar what was programs. There they are, on the screen. The school of historical, philosophical and religious studies. Quite a mouthful. We call it shippers. Also, the center for political thought and leadership. Or ptl, another stellar program. If this lecture intrigues you, you should check out our center. We are doing big things. Finally, if you are interested in learning more about yours truly, www. Professorbarth. Com. You can read about me on that website. A generation of politicians has passed. Alexander hamilton died in a dual in 1804. James madison pictured there on the right retired from politics and dies in 1836. John adams at Thomas Jefferson die on the same day, july 4, 1826. 50 years to the day of the signing of the declaration of independence. Pretty incredible. You cant make Something Like that up. America is changing. A market revolution is sweeping the young republic. Mass commercialization. Profitmaking. New opportunities for investment. Inventions. Entrepreneurship. A burst in the population. Look at that explosion from one million in 1750 to 13 million by 1830. This is a young population. Average age about 17 years old. Aggressive, energetic, highly individualistic. Oftentimes reckless. Factories have sprouted up all across the north, especially new england, producing textiles and other manufactured goods. Outside of the cities, and agricultural goods. Wheat exports. In the south, a new plant cotton. It creates that soft, and arable textile durable textile. That slave system deeper and deeper entrenched. If you are going to have textiles, if youre going to have cotton, wheat, you are going to have to have transportation. You have turnpikes connecting rural markets to atlantic port cities. Steamboats in the 1820s and 30s, tracking up and down the mississippi river. Canals. Canals built all across the country. The most famous being the eerie canal, completed in 1825, connecting the hudson river to lake erie. If you have canals and plantations and factories, you need credit. Hereto, we have lots and lots of credit here, too, we have lots and lots of credit. Banks popping up everywhere. They are chartered by the states. They stay within that particular state boundary. Each one issuing their own currency. Living on top of those banks is the mother bank, the chief bank, the central bank, the bank of the United States. This is the second bank of the United States from earlier this semester. There was a first bank of the United States in 1791. Alexander hamilton pushes through congress a bank of the United States. This bank a private bank with stockholders and dividends. This Bank Hamilton says will benefit not only financial interests, but will benefit the country, the public. How will it benefit the public . Because the u. S. Treasury will deposit money in the bank. Money coming in from taxes in the treasury can also borrow from the bank. This bank has a 20 year charter, but it has a lot of opponents. Your member the chief opponent Thomas Jefferson hates the bank. The bank, jefferson believes, is an institution that imperiled american liberty by elevating to power a wealthy financial elite. A nonproductive elite. Jefferson opposes it. Jefferson comes to power in 1800. The charter expires in 1811. One year later, a war it rocks with britain. The National Government finds itself in tremendous fiscal straits. After the war was finished, five years later, the democratic republicans, the party of jefferson, charter a second bank of the United States. This second bank, much like the first, also would have a 20 year charter. This charter would run out in a 1836. Presumably congress and the president a good faith will renew the charter. There were bumps along the road. You will recall from the last lecture the panic of 1819. This massive bubble in western land speculation largely caused by the bank at all this new Bank Currency and then the burst. The country recovers from the panic fairly quickly. The second bank of the United States survives that panic and goes into the 1820s with very little opposition. Most americans have come to accept the bank, the market revolution is fully underway. It is not just the economy that is changing. It is the political arena that is changing. Two new political parties, the wakes at the whigs and the democrats, talking heads. Who are these democrats . Representing new england for the whigs, Daniel Webster, a lawyer for massachusetts. One of the most brilliant orators in u. S. Congressional history. Quite an impressive figure. We also have from massachusetts John Quincy Adams, son of the second president of the United States. He too was a wake. A whig. Most famously we have henry clay from the state of kentucky. Clay ends up running for president five times. Just cant get it. Cant seem to do it. Nonetheless, henry clay is one of the most important political figures in American History. What does clay do . Clay has a program, a system, an american system. That american system is threefold. Henry clay says first, we need to have protective tariffs on american manufacturing. Sure enough, henry clay, when he becomes secretary of state under John Quincy Adams, adams signs into law a new tariff, the tariff of 1828, raising the tariff from 25 to 45 . That is one heck of a tariff. Why do they do that . To protect american manufacturers and textile goods. Clay also says we need federally funded internal improvements. Using federal dollars to finance the building of roads, canals, bridges, and so forth. Finally, clay says, we need to recharter the bank of the United States. Unlike hamilton, however, clay frames his defense of the bank of the United States in common man rhetoric. Hamilton says the bank is good for financial interests. Clay says the bank is good for farmers, the bank is good for mechanics, for manufacturers. The bank is good for the country as a whole. We need to be charter this bank. There is the wig Party Platform whig Party Platform. Utilizing the powers of the federal government to stimulate economic activity, and they adopt a broad interpretation of the constitution. The federal government they say does have the right to engage in this activity. Most of the whigs are going to come from new england. Also from the west. This is what distinguished clay from hamilton. Hamilton makes no appeals to the west. Clay is from the west. He hopes the internal improvements will get western votes. There is that Democratic Party. The democrats oppose the american system. The democrats adopt a strict interpretation of the constitution, a very limited view of the federal government sparrow government power. To common ordinary people, to wagers, to workingclass laborers in places like new york. Definitely a hotbed for democratic activity. The south and the west. In new york, you have martin van buren, a democrat. Later president of the United States. He later leaves the Democratic Party and joins the antislavery free soil party. We will get to that in a future lecture. Represented the south of the democrats, we have another legendary figure john c calhoun. Calhoun, a rabid defender of slavery. But also a rabid opponent of the tariff. He hates the tariff so much, in fact, that calhoun calls the tariff of 1828 the tariff of abominations. Hes as it discriminate against the south. Sure enough, that same year, calhoun offers in secret and he does it in secret because he is Vice President of the United States calhoun authors in secret nsa advocating an essay advocating the state can nullify any federal law they view as unconstitutional. From the west, we have Andrew Jackson. There he is. Probably the most colorful president in United States history. I think we can state a most objectively the most colorful president in u. S. History. A giant of a figure. He stood at 61. That is all for that day and age tall for that day and age. Skinny. Bushy eyebrows. Hair brushed high above a very large forehead, with piercing blue eyes. Jackson was a hot tempered man. He was a bit stubborn. Oftentimes a bit bullheaded. He had strong convictions. He knew when he was opposed to something, he stood up to that system. He has a few nicknames as well. He went by the name old hickory. Tough as old hickory wood. His second nickname sharp knife. Jackson was born in 1767 in north carolina. His parents died at a very early age. He was an orphan. No parental restraints. As a young boy, he got into brawls and fights. He was not all that interested in learning or reading. Jackson was nine years old at the time of the american revolution. At age 13, he joined a militia as a messenger. At one point, he ran into a british officer. The british officer told him to clean his boots. Young jackson said he would not clean the boots. The officer took his sword and slashed young andy, leaving a permanent scar on his left hand and the left side of his head. Jackson went on to help found the state of tennessee. Got married in 1806. Someone insulted his wife, he challenge the man to a dual and shot him duel and shot him. The only president in history who is ever killed a man. He joins the military. He fights the creek indians in 1814. Fights the seminole indians in 1817. Then in 1815 ernsts fame through earns his fame through the battle of new orleans. This spectacular victory against the british, even though you may remember the war was already over. That does not seem to matter. This elevates Andrew Jackson to celebrity status. That is indeed what jackson is a celebrity. He has some political experience, served about two years in the senate. That is all. He is also very wealthy. There is a plantation, the hermitage. The hermitage starts out in 1804, jackson has nine slaves. By the 1830s, he has well over 100 slaves, and slaves are very expensive. Most Common People cannot afford any at all. He has over 100, he is a very healthy man, very welltodo. Jackson enters the senate in 1823. In 1824, he runs for the presidency, a fourway race between jackson, adams, William Crawford and henry clay. Jackson wins the popular vote 42 , jackson also wins the most electoral votes. But jackson does not win a majority of electoral votes. The contest goes to the house of representatives. Henry clay, speaker of the house. He cannot stand Andrew Jackson, his rival in the west. Henry clay strikes a deal with John Quincy Adams and says tell you what, i will get the votes you need in the house of representatives if you make me secretary of state. The deal is made, adams wins in the house of representatives, becomes president. Clay is elevated to secretary of state. Jackson curious is furious. He says corrupt bargain, rid election rigged election. He says he will get his revenge. 1828, 2 men contest. Jackson wins in a landslide. Look at that electoral map. Quite an impressive victory. How does he do it . The answer is simple democracy. Jackson benefits from universal male suffrage. We call this period jacksonian democracy property qualifications for all three men in the United States are eliminated. No property is required to vote. Double the number of voters in 1828 then he saw in 1824. Jackson uses this to his advantage and wages a Political Campaign that utilizes a form of politics we call populism. Populism is a political term that has come up quite a bit in the last few years. What is populism . Populism is not an ideology per se. You can find populism on the left, you can find populism on the right. Populism is a style of politics. It speaks to the interests, to the hopes, to the fears of common, ordinary people. Populists tend to pit the people versus the elites. The people versus the establishment. Populists tend to warn of the various forces in positions of power. Those positions of power are in government or the corporate world to nefarious forces. The chariot on top cherry on top, populists often have charismatic personality. Often with populism, you will see populists emerge who uses the sheer force of personality to rally people around them, and to use that charisma to attack what he claims corrupt entrench inches entrenched interests. That is what populism is. Andrew jackson is a populist. Inaugurated into the presidency in 1829. In celebration of his presidency, he throws a party. Opens up the white house lawn to the public. Hundreds of people from around the country for in pour in to the white house lawn. Everyday americans sleeping on hotel room floors and in all ways. They pack in on the white house lawn. A spiked punch bowl, and whiskey is being passed around. Jackson is stoked. The people are ready for jackson. They look at what is going on and it disgusts them. Can you think what Daniel Webster thought of Something Like this . Jackson is ready. Was the country ready for jackson . What is this man going to do . There is no telling. He is a loose cannon. What is going to happen . Henry clay says all right, we lost that election, that is fine. Im going to push through my american system. He begins with internal improvements. Clay says we need a road. We have all these farmers for my home state of kentucky, we need a road that stresses from lexington, kentucky, to maysville, kentucky, right there along the ohio river. I want to use federal dollars to build that railroad that road. The bill goes on. It arrives on jacksons desk after five through congress. Jackson responds and vetoes the bill. One of the first famous the goes vetoes in president ial history. This was just the beginning. Clay says he vetoed my internal improvements bill, lets try another plan of the american system. Lets try a new tariff. The tariff of 1832. This is a strange tariff. It seems to contradict clays program. The tariff of 1832 lowers the tariff from 45 to 35 . Why does clay do this . You will recall that tariff of abominations in 1828. South carolina and other states in the south are very angry about this. They say lets lower it a little bit. High enough to soften some of the opposition. The bill arrives on Andrew Jacksons desk. President jackson signs the bill. All sounds good. South carolina is not so pleased with this bill. South carolina nullifies the tariff of 1832. Why would they do this . It was a tariff. South carolina says not enough. This tariff is unconstitutional. We have a right to declare this tariff no and void. Null and void. If you do not if you do not accept our notification of this tariff, we will secede from the United States. Unbelievable. What is Andrew Jackson going to do . Jackson gets word of this, and jackson could not be more furious with john c calhoun. For jackson, this is an affront to his authority as president. Jackson signed the bill. Jackson says to say that any state may at pleasure secede from the union is to say that the United States is not a nation. Jackson asks congress to pass a force bill. This bill would permit the president to send 50,000 u. S. Troops into South Carolina. Jackson prepares the u. S. Navy. The u. S. Navy now off the coast of South Carolina. He is ready to invade the state of South Carolina. What is going to happen . The nullification crisis. We are on the brink of civil war over a tariff. Henry clay at the last moment, desperate, passes a compromise tariff. In the midst of this crisis, a compromise tariff that lowers the tariff gradually over a 10 year period. That tariff will only be 25 . Between this compromise tariff and between jacksons force bill, South Carolina backs off and accepts the tariff. Calhoun does not like jackson. Probably does not like jackson anymore than henry clay does. South carolina backs off. Jackson called their bluff. Just to prove a point, the South Carolina legislature nullified the force bill. Jackson said whatever. Go ahead and do that. Henry clay. He looks at jackson and says i never thought i would say this, but thank you. Jackson goes ok oh clay, im not done. what you mean youre not done . Jacksons is there is one other thing the bank. Clay says its funny jackson mentions that, because maybe we would go ahead and just returned this bank early. Read charter recharter this bank early. It is 1832. Lets get going. Let us read charter this bank. You are on board with that, right mr. President . Not only am i not on board, mr. Clay, but i am ready to wage war against this bank of the United States. And here we have it, the bank war. One of the most dramatic events in United States history. The charter of that second bank will expire very shortly. Whigs in congress wished to recharter it early. They did not expect this. Jackson declares his opposition to the bank. Where does this come from . It seems to come out of nowhere. Jackson did not run his campaign in 1828 against the bank. He made no mention of the Campaign Desk the bank during the campaign. All of a sudden he unleashes a torrent of insults. First of all, jackson says the bank is unconstitutional. The bank, jackson says, is a monopoly. An unconstitutional monopoly. Not only is that a monopoly, it is a monster. Jackson warns that if this bank is rechartered, we will see in this nation the creation of a new moneyed power moneyed aristocracy, a financial elite that will overthrow this young republic. We must do everything we can to stop this nefarious thing, this den of vipers. Pretty strong language. He called the hydra of corruption. That mythic multiheaded beast. Jackson says this is the hydra of corruption. What evidence does he have . As evidence, he points out 59 members of congress and he is correct in this 59 members of congress on stock in the bank of the United States. They have a financial interest in pushing this recherter through. Daniel webster while serving in the senate is also a director of this private bank. A hydra of corruption from jacksons point of view. Andrew jackson was going to take that bank down. Henry clay cannot believe it. You are mad, henry clay says. Cant believe youre doing this. How many times they are going to run for president clay . Two times, three times, five times . How many times he going to lose before you realize you cant win . You are bluffing clay says. Im going to take this bank down if it is the last thing i do, believe me. Clay does up believe jackson. Congress is in an uproar. Should reside with clay . Should we side with jackson . Should the bank the rechartered . The number one issue on everyones mind. And jackson had enemies. Not just clay. The president of the bank himself, nicholas biddle. A man who really could not be more opposite from Andrew Jackson. They shared some things in common. They were determined, stubborn, bullheaded. Biddle was extremely welleducated. Jackson did not have a college education. The only president in our history except in George Washington who did not have a college education. Biddle, at age 10, admitted into the university of pennsylvania. H 10. Five years later, bill biddle transfers to princeton university. At age 15. He is a genius. A financial wizard. He knows what he is talking about. That is also biddles downfall. He is elitist. He is arrogant. He is a bit pretentious. Because of that pretentiousness, he looks at someone like jackson and wonders if this is really going on. Jackson does not know anything he is talking about. He sees jackson as an unsophisticated gimlet. He has no idea what he is talking about. The country in an age of jacksonian democracy, who are they going to side with . Nicholas biddle earned the nickname czar nicholas. Heres a cartoon, a projackson cartoon. It is a bit dated, zero have to forgive me. Not only do we have nicholas biddle, we also have an election coming up. Jackson versus clay. The president ial election of 1832. What an election. The drama. Look at this. Unbelievable. The future of the country. Financially speaking, hanging in the balance. You cannot find to greater opponents two greater opponents. Clay, inc. Injunction with Daniel Webster in conjunction with Daniel Webster, clay pushes through congress that summer, just a few months before election day, a bill to recharter the bank of the United States. Why does clay do this . Clay says i think jackson is bluffing. There is no way in an Election Year he would do something so risky and so bold as to reject a bill like this. The bank bill passes the house. The bank bill passes the senate. The bank bill arrives at the president s desk. Veto. Jackson stunned the world and the does the world, unleashing because the vetoes the bill. Now we have an election. This question of the bank is on everybodys mind. It is the number one issue. Everybody is talking about it in here is another cartoon. Remember the hydra . That hydra of corruption. Jackson going up against that financial beast. It is a Hard Campaign for jackson. Nicholas biddle flexes his muscle. Nicholas biddle, on behalf of the bank, gives henry clay a 50,000 campaign donation. Quite a lot of money for those days. Not only that, but the bank for years already has been funding and loaning money to newspapers all across the country. That press, all of a sudden, is piling on to. Things look really bad. What is jackson going to do . Is he going to win . Things dont look so good. Jackson is confident. In the midst of this trial, jackson says the bank is trying to kill me, but i will kill it. Jackson says he will kill it. What happens . The election occurs. Election day comes about. Victory for jackson. Jackson wins the election in a landslide. Clay wins five states. Jackson takes the bulk of the states. You will notice South Carolina refuses to vote for jackson in the middle of that nullification crisis. Jackson wins the election. Victory for the jacksonians. This cartoon in 1833. For low back story, in graduate school i took a course. We had to take an old photograph or an old blackandwhite cartoon and we had to use photoshop to color it in. I had never used photoshop before. I thought this cartoon was interesting. I took this cartoon and did that. Not bad for a beginner, right . Look at the imagery in the cartoon. There, standing behind jackson, the common man, enthusiastically patting him on the back. The bankers, the financiers running away in fear. The newspapers, the press, all spread out on the ground. Look at the demon face. Look at the columns, the following columns. What is that all about . If you are familiar with the gospels, you will know there is this one time that jesus became violent. When was that . When jesus pulled up his whip and drove out the money changers from the temple. Jesus saying get out of my temple to those moneychangers. Jackson, like christ, has driven the moneychangers out of the temple. This is a phenomenal victory for jacksonian democracy. This is not over. 1833, you will notice the charter does not run out until 1836. Jackson says he has to put up with this bank for another three years . He couldnt do that. There is no telling what these guys would try to pull. Sure enough, jackson, after he wins the election, removes all federal deposits, all treasury deposits, from the bank, starving the bank to death, removing those federal deposits early and then transferring them to state banks. Projackson state banks. These projackson state banks by jacksons opponents are called pet banks. These are pets for jackson. The whigs are understandably furious with jackson. This is a cartoon. Look at that. King into the first, translink andrew the first, trampling on the constitution. Over stooping his constitutional authority. Born to command. Many people are opposed to jackson. Some democrats are opposed to jackson. They thought he and taken some dictator like steps. He was to king like they say he is driving the bankers out. Order of the removal of public money deposited from the u. S. Bank. That is in reference to the removal of federal deposits. Years later when he was on his deathbed, jackson was asked what was his most proud, which meant . Most proud accomplishment . Jackson had four words i killed the bank. His proudest accomplishment. Sure enough, from 1836 to 1913, 77 years, no central bank. In 1913, the congress chartered a new central bank, a central bank called the Federal Reserve. This Federal Reserve, well we could teach a whole class on the Federal Reserve. In short, one of the countrys wealthiest financiers, jp morgan, just prior to his death, designed the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve pushed through congress. It prints are money. A mostly private bank. It prints the money. Nowadays what it does is it digitizes money creation more often than printing. It loans out the money, usually at 1 or 2 interest to leading banks, to goldman sachs, to jp morgan, to bank of america. Then they landed out at a higher rate of interest, making profit from the dishes the difference, from people like you. More often than not, they will lend it to hedge funds, to speculators, to equities and futures and derivatives. It is a very important institution. A cornerstone of the current day banking system. A cornerstone of the currency. If you look at a one dollar bill, it doesnt say u. S. Treasury note on the top. It says Federal Reserve note. Same if you look at a five dollar bill, or a 10 bill, or a 20 bill. Look at that. There he is. Wow, there he is. Andrew jackson himself. That is strange. What is he doing on that bill . Call me crazy, but that almost looks intentional. Am i right . Almost like a gotcha if youre a big game hunter and you kill big game, you take the head and mounted on the wall. Maybe i am wrong. Maybe they just forgot that jackson was totally opposed to everything that stood for. One way or another, a pretty interesting story. After jacksons presidency, the democrats win in 1836. Artan van buren defeats Daniel Webster. Martin van buren defeats Daniel Webster. Van buren runs into some troubles a new financial panic sweeps the country. The panic of 1837. All those pet banks, the state banks that received those federal deposits, used those deposits, over speculation and western land, there was a land bubble. The bubble popped in 1837. The democrats become extremely unpopular across the country. Now it is the whigsturn. In 1840, the whigs run against martin van buren. The whigs say they will play a test run a war hero. The hero of the battle of typical new tippecanoe in 1811, William Henry harrison. Were also going to put on harrisons ticket a democrat. A democrat who was very critical of jackson, john tyler, who is a virginia planter. He was a jeffersonian, but thought jackson was to king like too king like. They were right. Look at that landslide for the whigs. They overwhelmingly win the election. The first time, they control the house, the senate, the presidency. Henry clay rubbing his hands. He is ready to go. William Henry Harrison delivers his inauguration speech. A storm comes through washington, d. C. , pouring down rain. During the speech, in that rain, William Henry harrison, 68 years old, comes down with pneumonia and dies. Now john tyler is president. Totally not what we planned. That is ok, were going to tyler is not jackson, at least. We are going to push through a new bill. Clay pushes through a new bill for a bank. This time he calls it something different. He calls it the fiscal bank. It flies through the house, it flies through the senate. Gets on john tylers desk. Veto. Clay cant believe it. All right, were going to try again. Clay pushes through another bill. This time, we wont even call it a bank. That is how much the country hates ranks. Theyre going to call it the country hates banks. Theyre going to call it the fiscal corporation. Goes to the house, the senate, gets to the desk, veto. Clay cant believe this is happening. We are to have to wait four more years. It is unbelievable we have to put up with this. They wait four years. Finally, clay says he is doing it this time. He cant trust anybody but himself. 1844, he runs for president against james k. Polk and loses the election. Poor, poor henry clay. That is the bank war episode. It is a fun episode. However you feel about the bank war. It is an interesting event. There was a darker side to jackson. A darker side to his presidency, a darker side to populism. Andrew jackson, during his administration, had one of the cruelest events in u. S. History. That of course is the trail of tears, the removal of roughly 100,000 native americans from the old south west. Cotton is the big bad of the day. Cotton plantations spreading all across the south. Standing in the way of those cotton plantations are 125,000 native americans. The creek, the cherokee, the seminole, other groups. In 1830, both the whigs and the democrats pushed through congress with jacksons signature the indian removal act, giving the president permission to negotiate with Indian Tribes to remove them from the Old Southwest into a New Territory indian territory, what is today oklahoma. Jackson defends this by saying he wants to preserve indian culture. Indian culture is at risk. We are going to move them, forcibly, into oklahoma, where they will forever be able to live in peace. Of coarse, a few years later, settlers arrived in oklahoma and want that land as well. Jackson does run into an opponent. That opponent is the supreme court. In 1831, the cherokee sue the state of georgia. It goes all the way to the supreme court. Chief Justice John Marshall rules in favor of the charity. The cherokee. He says removing their land is unconstitutional. Andrew jackson, in typical manner, very jacksonian manner, response to chief Justice Marshall and says Justice Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it. He completely ignores the decision and the indian removal goes through. The most infamous episode in this removal was the trail of tears in 1838, 1839. 50,000 charity cherokee and next lecture, we will look more at the cherokee civilization. They made a strong effort to try to comply. It was not enough. 15,000 of them were moved from georgia to oklahoma on a journey, on foot, that was 116 days. Terrible conditions. Roughly one in four cherokee die of disease or malnutrition. That is 4000 cherokee. Just to give you an idea. There is the route of the indian removal. Just to give you an idea of how bad things were. There was a confederate soldier after the civil war and he had this to say he said i fought the war between the states and i have seen many men shot, but the cherokee removal was the cruelest work i ever knew. In conclusion, what can we say about jackson . What can we say about democracy . What can we say about populism . There are a lot of lessons here. I think democracy can do a lot of good. Democracy can do a lot of good. Populism can do a lot of good. Strong personalities can do a lot of good. But all three of those things can also do a lot of bad as well. Populism or a jacksonian style democracy is risky. It is a most like rolling the dice. You do not know how it is going to turn out. Things could happen that are good, but you dont know. Most of the time, people dont go for populists. During times of uncertainty, during times in which there is a sense that there is a corrupt elite system, that awesome often will give an avenue to populists, good or bad, demagogue or wellmeaning. That avenue can often be exploited. You have to be careful. You have to be very careful in moments like that. Jackson, what we make of him . I am not sure. Interesting guy. Definitely an interesting guy. We have a new republic next class, we have a new republic. The republic of texas. The republic of texas is going to apply for statehood in the United States. That is going to call its own controversy. That does it. Enjoy your weekend. I will see you on monday. [captions Copyright National cable satellite corp. 2017] [captioning performed by the announcer interested in American History tv, visit our website. You can preview upcoming programs and watch college lectures, easy and tours, museum tours. Each week, american americatvs reel deliver films that provide context for todays Public Affairs issues. Mark the july 4 holiday. The halfhour program visits is your siphon littlefield and washington the the and uses animated sequences to illustrate key moments in the american revolution. [band playing] [knocking] [band playing]
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