Welcome to the emergence of aerial war virtual symposium, i am chris mackowski. Thank you so much for doing this online years event. I want to get one final shadow to our director, chris white, for his help behind the camera today. He is the cofounder, and he make sure todays happening for us virtually. Thank you chris. And also thank you to our symposium coco originators, kevin pollack and dan dan welch, whose hard work have me todays event possible. And also, thank you to our friends at cspan for sharing americans, American History a very important task in these days. Our final speak for today, is Paige Gibbons backus. Weve been talking a lot today about the war in the east, but we cant forget about the aftermath of battle as well. And one of the most compelling portions about Civil War History in a civil war story. Pages of public historian with a county manchuria, shes also a social media manager for emerging civil war, and shes here today to talk about the carnage in the medical field of the civil war. Thank you so much, chris for having me. And thank you all for listening in and watching these videos, and joining us for the virtual emerging civil war symposium. For some history at home. And so today when im going to be talking to me about, is im gonna be talking about is the life, the fight for life and death in the aftermath of these battles, over the american civil war. And weve heard a lot of talks today about different battles, we heard about prison camps, weve heard about raids, in the aftermath of the battle in the years and days and months following was, in a sense, a whole other world in itself. It was a fight for life and death. It was a war against battle wounds, and a war against disease. And one historian who wrote a book called learning with winded wrote that doctors were actually the Unsung Heroes of the civil war. And now the civil war was overwhelming in itself. And that the physicians dow are forced to practice tirelessly in the general hospitals, and in temporary field hospitals were treating the dying and wounded after these horrific battles. And so when ended up being four years of war cost over 700,000 casualties. And so over the course of our discussion today we are going to be discussing some of the challenges that this created, and some of the differences the fights took place in this war life and death. And whats ultimately resulted, in would good came out of this fight for life and death that a lot of us today take for granted, in the medical field. So for the purpose of a conversation today, i could be talking to you all, all day about anything and everything with civil war medicine. But for the purpose of our conversation today and our 45 minutes that i have allotted ive pulled examples, mainly focusing on the war in the east, which was the theme of the emerging civil war virtual symposium, today. But before we can even start, talking about some of the different challenges that we are faced in a medical field over the course of the civil war, we need to talk a little bit about where the medical field was at the beginning of the civil war. And, so, at the time of the civil war in the 18 fifties and 18 sixties, there has been significant medical advancement since the 18th century. We far gone beyond the four humorous, which will see a picture here. Which are essentially black vile, yellow bile, blood vile, and phlegm. Which if one of those where weve found balance you are seeking you would have to put those back in balance. A little known fact its actually one of this is one of the reasons George Washington died when he had pneumonia, because they took too much blood to try and rebalance those humors. And so by the time civil war this was coming out of fashion, you had a study of anatomy that was taking place, with the use of cadavers both legally and illegally, with things such as body snatching started coming around in the 18 thirties. But, you have different studies of the medical field, like back then we all, a. G. Was excuse me, epidermal itchy, that are not taking place at this point in time. And that would all come into place, by the time that the civil war began in 1861. However, by the time of the 18 fifties and 18 sixties, you do have medical schools that have been around since the 1700s. Some of the better known schools wear in paris, such as you see in a picture here with the paris clinical schools. You see the medical schools in edinburgh, scat scotland. So europe was much more advanced, in this time in, the United States. However, you do start having medical schools and in major cities, like boston, new york, philadelphia. They are starting to take hold, and students are starting to attend. However, for a lot of these schools, there is not very much clinicals, like you are used to today, with a medical schools. That students attend. Its more learning from books, and its more observations from these cadavers. But by this point in time, in the 18 fifties and 18 sixties, the United States was trying to catch up to europe by creating medical associations, establishing the american medical association, and trying to reform the medical field through journals, medical societies as well as experiments and investigations. Well but, why the time that the civil war began, the medical department both for the Northern Army in the Confederate Army thought they were well prepared for what they were going to experience. However, at the very first major battle of the civil war, on july 21st, 1860 wind, as a battle of first masses, it would really illuminate just how many challenges the medical field was going to experience over the course of the civil war. And at the battle here, you had 6000 troops who are engaged in a battle that lasted about 24 hours. And by the end of the 24 hours, you had over 3500 soldiers who were wounded or missing. And at the very beginning of the battle, these challenges immediately started to reveal themselves to the medical departments. Now, in the medical field you had to sergeants to each regiment so that meant you had a sergeant and an assistant surgeon, for about 1000 then. For the union armys, there were no hospitals established they are on the battlefield, that they had marched to that morning. And for the Confederate Army, there were four miles to the south before the junction. There were no hospital setups close to the front lines. Additionally at this point in time there was no centralized im glance court. The raged in the regiment had their one ambulances, and they would not be an ambulance court generalized until august of 1862. This meant that the ambulances were regimental. This meant that they there were cases in fact were some soldiers were actually picked up with priority, over others, based on what their regiments were. Also meant that there was very poor organization, which resulted in a slower action, which resulted in more deaths. And just to kind of give you an idea of some of the scenes that were found here, one soldier from the fifth virginia infantry described a scene at one field hospital, in the hours after the battle. And he writes, there were piles of legs, feet, hands, arms, all thrown together and at a distance resembled piles at a corn talking. Many of the feats still retained a boot virtue. Wounded men relying on tables, and surgeons, some who at the time we are very unskilled full, were carving away. Like farmers arbitrary season. While the poor devils, under the knife, yelled with pain. Many lives were lost who should have been safe, and many who are trying to save the limbs who had been and should have been amputated. There was another group who came across the stone house, made famous by the battle of manassas. And one of them remark that in that, building there were 32 soldiers, many of them who were dreadfully mangled by candid shots. There was but one single surgeon, and he was young and apparently inefficient. Then lay on the floor with clotted wounds, still undressed. Some have died, and not yet been removed. And so for a lot of the surgeons, a lot of the medical personnel that was operating, at the battle of battle of first manassas. This was the first time they had seen warfare, and none of them had practical experience. So there were mistakes that caused soldiers lives. There were mistakes that also saved soldiers lives. But at the battle of battle of first manassas it was not a life, it was not a fight yet for life and death. And at this point, the lines were still divided between north and south. And this would create issues, in the surgeon for the surgical field, because what hospitals were captured this meant that you had surgeons that were taken away from their wounded patients. One including, at this hospital here, church. One when the union army began their route to head back to central, builders agents had to be mailed by those union surgeons. Do they stay with their soldiers, and risk imprisonment, down in enrichment . Or do they leave their patients behind . One surgeon from the 11th massachusetts, left a soldier on the operating table and ran. I just decided to stay, and then were taken away and sent to richmond for the prisoner work camp, meeting confederate troops in need of treatment. But for a lot of these union surgeons, who were overwhelmed with their own wounded, that meant a lot of these confederate soldiers did not receive the treatment that they needed, costing too many lives. And as a result of this, not a year later in june of 1862, with d. Lemon here, dr. Hunter maguire, and several other union surgeons, were captured entered into an agreement in may of 1862. It was stating that we see surgeons, and assistant surgeons of the United States army, who are now prisoners of war in this place, do give our parole of honor on being unconditionally released to report in person, singularly or collectively, to the secretary of war in washington sadie, as such, and that we will use our best efforts in the same number of medical officers of the Confederate States army, now prisoners or may hereafter be taken and released on the same terms. And this, effectively, since may of 1862 with the creating of order number 60, essentially made medical personnel neutral over the course of the war. And at this point, it did turn into a fight of life or death. Where medical personnel both for the union and confederate soldiers were trying to save as many lives, as possible one but at this point, you have several other challenges that illuminate themselves, over the course of the civil war. And one of the biggest ones was the increase in casualties. I remember, for the first battle of battle of first manassas, you had 3500 casualties in one single day. For example, antietam, in september of 1862, the number of wounded in the battle of antietam, in one single day, would reach over 17,000. For fredericksburg it would reach over 13,000. For gettysburg it would create over 33,000 wounded soldiers. And this creates several issues, in terms of food supply, medical supply, staffing, that now the medical battle of first Manassas Department for both the north and south are overwhelmed to try and save as many lives as possible. And one example, in the battle of antietam, a new york tribune reporter making his way to the battlefield on september 18th, remarked what he saw. He said the wounded are coming in by the thousands. Around and in a large barn. I counted more than 1200 wounded. Along the same road, and within the distance of two miles, were marked more than three hospitals. Each having from 600 to 700 and them, and long trains of ambulances standing in the road, waiting to discharge their bloody loads. Surgeons with hands, arms and garments covered with blood and busy amputating limbs, extracting balls, and managing wounds of every nature in every part of the body. In addition to this, after the battle of gettysburg, the entire town was turned into a hospital. And, one reporter from the public philadelphia leisure, on july 15th, 1863, marked that this down, in the vicinity around it and with the space of the counties surrounding about eight or ten miles, its literally one fast and overcrowded hospital. In the town itself, every Available Space has been freely given up by the citizens to the sufferers. And yet on the ninth day after the battle, several thousand are lying with arms and legs amputated, and every other kind of conceivable wounds, intense and over fields, in the woods and stables, barnes. And some of them, even are the bare ground, without any cover or any shelter. And this helps us lead us to another challenge that was experienced in the medical field, over the course of the war, that had a huge impact on the spike for life and death. And that was a weather. The weather is one of the most impossible things on the memories of these soldiers and civilians, that were here, over the course of the civil war. And its actually one of the most recorded events in the letters in primary documents. The weather impacted military tactics. For example, jacksons famous flanking march, in this battle, would not have been possible without the days of rain, start would mark the dust of the armies. In addition to this we learned about general and brooks much march on january 1863. Forcing troops to mark to march through some of the mightiest roads, that anyone has ever experienced. It also had a Significant Impact on the treatment of the wounded. Men who were supposed to be elements, especially on difficult hospitals, which much more susceptible to disease and to illnesses. And conditions that impacted the way they were able to heal their wounds. And so, for example, after the battle of gettysburg, there was a severe thunderstorm that raged through the area causing flooding in the fields. And in the roots sellers, some of which were filled with water. During a violent thunder, gust for example, a company with a heavy wind and rain, on saturday july 5th, after the battle. Somehow drowned, had not the extraordinary efforts put forth to protect them. In addition to this, for example, in fredericksburg in december of 1862, the average temperature was reported low of the twenties, and a high of the forties and fifties. And in the days before the battle of fredericksburg, one delaware soldier remarked, rain hail snow, all day, and far into the night. And two days later, you are marked that on december 6th and seventh it had to be one of the coldest dust i had experienced, since i joined the army. There were men who were frozen to death, on the picket. The field hospitals fared much of the same, way after the battle of first masses with snow and rain, going into one for the soldiers were laying down on the, ground offering a little protection in little comfort. But for many of these soldiers those who were in the prisoner war camps headed the worse. Many of these men were forced to live outside, in scrap shelters, to heal themselves from the rain in from the heat. As well as to have a little protection for their skin, for clothing as well as little food to sustain themselves. They will say its one of the notorious president s in the south, president anderson georgia. But from a discussion earlier today, i did pull some examples from all my era. El moira had about 5100 soldiers camped outdoors, where about 3800 were houston about 30 barretts. And so with the onset of winter, there were orders made for the barracks to be built, for many of these men who were intense without floors or without blankets. And so, one soldier who was from the state of texas, who was an outlier in the winter, remark that if there was ever hell on earth, the prisoners lifeless at hell. But it was not a hot one. Another soldier remarked that the weather ten to 15 degrees below zeros 100 men were trying to keep warm by one stove. Each morning, then crawled out of their banks and would get into a fight, frequently, for a place by the fire. God help the steak and the week, as they were literally left out in the cold. And by december, mostly everyone who is in these overcrowded barracks, but with the summer drought how temperatures and with many of these armies traveling specially throughout the south, this was another problem. Food shortages. One observer from their christian khamenei was commemorate after the battle of gettysburg, and a field hospital, and sure if elected on a typical state of the hospitals in town. And she writes, the men were in a terrible condition, they lay up on a damp ground, many of them with nothing under them. In the hospitals, there was usually a large number of amputations. What the amputated stumps lying directly on the ground. Except when now and then, elevated a little up on a handful straw, or by old rags. Many of these men, and perhaps most of them, were without clothing. Suitable food was not to be had. The surgeons were overworked, there was an insufficient number of attendance. Nearby, for nearly quite 1000 rebels, most of them severely wounded. Shrinking and crying, from the distance, continually. Destitute of clothing, many nearly of them were naked and covered with filth, without tense, lying in the mud. Cursing, praying, making for their attendance, or visitors to put an end for their suffering. Another identified soldier from the 47th, 47th north carolina, excuse me, remembered that he was at a hospital and gettysburg, in the years after the war ended. And he writes that as a correspondent, as a consequence of a small number of surges left with us, our men suffered much, thus for the first two weeks there were no nurses, no medicines, no kinds of food for men, in our condition. Our supply mean only two or three hard crackers a day, with a small piece of fabric. And now and then, a cup of poor coffee. And for the men who were reduced to me or skeletons, from severe wounds and loss of bone, the hard floor was a blanket on it. Each day would be game weaker and weaker until a certain point was reached, then if our wounds were curable, nature began to revive the waist frame. If they were not, there was a little struggle, a little known, and the poor emaciated skeleton of what was once a man, was wrapped in a blanket and born former site forever. And so, not only would you find the struggle with the weather in these field hospitals after these battles, but also throughout the war. You would find them in the camps, as well. The fifth alabama that was camped at a point in the winter of 1861, all throughout the winter, remarked, weeping from alabama where the winters are not so severe, considered this winter of 1861, 1862, to be one of the coldest of our lives. And at this high plane, the coldest in america. So it seemed to, us he never got enough food, and we came here freezing and starving to death out winter. It is the first time in our lives, that rations became a part of our regular wartime life. And so having this like a food, having this exposure to the elements, created one of the most dangerous challenges that the medical personnel were forced to face over the civil war. And that was the disease. Over the course of the civil war, two thirds of soldiers of that 700, 000, died of disease rather than from the battle wounds. And there were several issues that caused this, even from the wars beginning. Even when you had soldiers starting to enlist. Many of these soldiers were coming from all walks of life, coming from cities, coming from farms, coming from north, south, coming from the countryside. And so, they were all exposed to different kinds of diseases, and had different kinds of communities. Well when you put hundreds of soldiers together in camps, all of a sudden not all of these soldiers grouped together, who have been in close quarters with four sanitation. And so diseases started spread it spreading rapidly. And some of the most common diseases that wouldve been found over the course of the civil war, were diseases such as dysentery. Diseases such as malaria, and yellow forever yellow fever caused by mosquitoes. You had measles, that spread through all of these hospitals. As well as typhoid fever. But there were some things that surgeons could do to try and help curve the spread of the disease is. One of which, for malaria and yellow fever, was to actually provide quiet night. Which was one of the few effective medicine snow is used during the course of the civil war. It was actually given into the soldiers rations, where they would actually drink it with a little bit of water. Though it is a terrible, so they would actually prefer to drink it with a little bit of rum or alcohol. But, this was one of the few medicines that was actually provided for the soldiers to try and help curve some of these diseases. For measles, and for typhoid fever which came from being in close quarters, as well is drinking poor drinking water, there was really no cure. And so for a lot of these diseases, like typhoid fever, was actually one of the more dangerous diseases dour found over the course of the civil war. Approximately 36 of soldiers became sick with typhoid fever, over the course of the civil war. If they survived, they would have immunity. However, it cost about a quarter of the deaths of the diseases that were fined over the course of the civil war. And so, in these hospitals, fighting with these diseases, and fighting against these infections such as gangrene and diseases such as scurvy, created these different challenges. But it also created successes, as well. Now, before we into talking about some of the successes that were found, over the course of the civil war, that a lot of us take for granted today. We need to discuss a little bit the difference between the medical corps in the north and south. And so, the medical department in the north was a little bit more equipped, they had more staffing, as well as better supplies in terms of medicine and food. And theres a little bit more freedom in the general hospitals they are, and throughout the north, and in washington d. C. To be able to treat the soldiers. Throughout the south, however, the medical department was shaped by a lack of resources and shortages in terms of food, medicine, beds, blankets, and staffing. And so as a result of that, the medical department for the confederacy was solely focused on trying to save as many lives as possible, with as few resources as they had available on. And so because of this, a lot of the medical advancements that we take for granted, today, we learn a lot about that from the Union Medical department. And one of the biggest success is that came out of the course of the civil war, was this volume of books, here. Known as a medical and surgical history of the war of the rebellion. And so, the surgical and medical history of the war of the rebellion he came out of two circulars. Circular number two passed in may of 1862, and circular number five passed in june of 1862. By the Union Medical department, and doctor william alexander. The circulars more orders in a sense, were passed out throughout the medical personnel, throughout the north directing medical personnel kick elect specimens and illustrate the injury and diseases that produced death or disability during the war. And thus affording the materials for the precise method of studying the problems regarding the diminishing of morality and alleviation of suffering in arms armies. And so, all of these were passed by doctor william alexander, who was a military physician, and Surgeon General of the United States from 1862 to 1864. And not only did this circular establish then assess itty to collect these specimens, and collect these cases. It also created the army medical museum, as a place to store all of these specimens and store all of this information. And so, and direct seen, all of these collections, anything that was considered of value to a surgeon was sent to the army medical museum, including specimens, projectiles, reports, images. On a scale that had never before been seen in American History. And an american medical field. And, as these circular spread, more surgeons wanted to get involved. More medical personnel wanted to get involved, because not only did create the opportunity for them to advance, it created the opportunity for surgeons to learn. For example, with doctor jacob de costa, a civilian actor who was treating patients in philadelphia, was able to submit histories using new techniques to diagnose illnesses. Additionally, doctor samuel growth, church surgeon at the medical college, was able to used a circular to study the effects of canned diseases on surgery. As and just a few, and so these are just a few examples of what you would find in the medical and surgical history of the war of the rebellion. Now, i do warn you, its not for the faint of heart. There are some graphic images in there. There are some graphics studies in their. And including this study here, these images here which you will see. Which is the effects of grand green on the arm. Well in addition to this, with circular number two. Circular number five is a circular that actually created the army medical museum. And so, sanitary, top of graphical, medical and surgical reports, details of cases, essays, the result of investigations, inquiries, anything that could be considered a value was sent here, in washington, d. C. And a lot of the times they were sent in barrels, full of alcohol, in order to preserve the specimen that was being sent from the field. And so, eventually all of these studies, all of these circular, would have been published in about 15 different volumes over the course of the next 20 years after the war ended. And a lot of these studies, and a lot of these specimens, were housed in the army medical museum, now known as the National Museum of health and medicine, today. Just outside of washington, d. C. In so, for all of these medical journals, in a lot of these cases, in a lot of the specimens, provided a wealth knowledge for future generations. And edward smith, who was a physician who wrote to doctor hey congratulating him on the circular,s throat that if theres any benefit from the sad struggle of this age, it is that the medical officers can fully justify looking for information and present the information for the worlds future use. And even 150 years later we can still go and visit the National Museum of health and medicine, today. And again, i would highly suggest if you go and visit, it is Amazing Museum to go and see. However, you do need to have a strong stomach, to go and visit it. For you are seeing specimens, including legs, several several war soldiers there, as well. And so, within the circulars, there are a few different pieces of civil war medicine, and a few different pieces of medical advancements that a lot of us take for granted, today that we would find. And one of them is back to reality. And so, back to reality is essentially of germs in wood causes diseases. In over the course of the civil war, surgeons and all the medical personnel didnt know what caused these a season would make people sick. They didnt understand how germs spread, and as a result they violated nearly every rule about the sterilization of the tools and the sterilization of the body, that surgeons used today. One soldier remarked at the beginning of the civil war that it was common to see a doctor with his sleeps fold up to his elbows, his bear arms as well as his linen smeared with blood, and his knife held between the teeth. In addition to this, doctors were practicing some different antique, or different antique methods that we now know to be completely out of date. One of which was liable plus. Laudable plus was a sign of an infection, and that we now know today but pasta thought back then was actually praiseworthy, it meant that the wound was healing. They actually did, they used cups to actually keep wound damp, keep a drip on it to keep it moist, and when this plus appeared they thought it would heal properly and take that bus and transfer it from one soldier to the other to transfer inning properties. We now know today they were transferring infections. On top of this, they experimented with different types of sutures with the lack of supplies. One of the most common sutures used during the civil war was horsehair. Using horsehair, it is very coarse and tough to work with. Surgeons actually started to boil it to soften it and make it easier to work with and more pliable. When they did that, they started to realize that soldiers were being sutured with the horsehair rather than the silk or wire threat were not becoming as ail. They wounds were not becoming as infected. So this helped lead to the invention of the germ theory and to the idea that boiling things, boiling water and washing your hands, it starts to kill germs. One surgeon remarked after the war in the specifics of the type of horsehair that should be used. He wrote for the purpose of the suture, a long white tail is actually the best horse here to use. He writes before being used, it should be soaked for a minute or two in boiling water so that it may be or it may be drawn once or twice through your fingers with moisten and if the hair had dried out. The next thing that we use a lot today that a lot of people take for granted is reconstructed surgery, now more commonly known today as plastic surgery. Over the course of the civil war, with the vast majority of these operations taking place in the hospitals, you have several soldiers who are left with deformities and, for those who are not able to have any kind of prosthetic or any kind of reconstruction, they were previously forced to live a doomed life where some soldiers could not be seen in public anymore. They could not function. They could not support their families. It had a terrible impact on these soldiers mental states. With the creation of reconstruct of surgery, this started to change and about the 18 thirties. However, it was very simple of just pulling skin, twisting skin, things of that nature. Over the course of the civil war however, it actually started to grow and increase into a much more prominent practice. One of the surgeons who was most commonly known for his reconstruct of surgery was doctor buck of new york. He was one of the most active and most successful practitioners of the through reconstruct of surgery. Using rotation, trans position, which is cutting different pieces of skin and replacing it, as well as shifting things around in order to try and help these soldiers live the easiest and most normal lives that they could possibly that they possibly could. This is one of the most common cases that you would find, or one of the most known cases the two would find a reconstructed surgery. This is private roland ward. These images you see here are included in the surgical history of the war of the rebellion. The case for this says a this jealous orifice one fourth of an inch in diameter only remaining in consequence of constant secretion of saliva, he is able to articulate quite plainly, which he has hitherto been out unable to do since the date of his injury. And put until the completion of his operation, the patient was compelled to assume a position to drink water and nourishment. He can now drink and eat food standing up. He also has the use of a metal excuse me, a rubber button properly adjusted so that he can actually have his food and drink and stop the secretion of saliva from making its exit externally. So you can see that by the use of this button and by the use of this reconstruct of surgery, his face almost quite literally is reconstructed to where he can have a normal life, where he can talk, where he can eat, where he can drink sitting up and rejoin society. For a lot of these soldiers, for these reconstruct of surgeries, its not quite so simple when you are losing an arm or when you are losing a leg. So the vast majority of operations that took place over the civil war were amputations. In fact, there were over 600 excuse me, over 60,000 amputations over the course of the civil war. So prosthetics became an important part of civil war medicine. Not only just for mobility, but for being able to become in conspicuous and rejoin civilian society as well. Or four soldiers who had amputations, having a prosthetic limb was a lot easier to have if you had a leg amputation. Four soldiers who had an arm amputation, a lot of the most common prosthetics given was the arm prosthetic in which the hand was solely a hook. For a lot of these soldiers, having a hand having a hope for a hand was incredibly uncomfortable. It was not a conspicuous. So many of these soldiers rather prefer to have the empty sleeve rather than half the arm prosthetic. But for a lot of these prosthetics, you had a lot more common prosthetics being seen from 1861 to 1873 for like prosthetics. Between 1845 and 18th six the one, you had 34 patents that were issued for different like prosthetics. By 1873, you had 133 patents that were issued for prosthetic limbs. They were in comfortable to function. They were uncomfortable to walk around in. But for many cases, a lot of these soldiers were able to stand and they were able to stumble around and rejoin society. One of the first soldiers to undergo an amputation was this soldier here. His name was james hanger from churchill, virginia. He lost his leg in june 3rd 1861. He found a prosthetic given to him incredibly uncomfortable so designed his own. The anger limb, as it was named, became so popular that midway through the war, he started to distributed among other soldiers who needed it. By 1871, he had actually created his own company. By 1888, he actually had several businesses with several offices from washington d. C. St. Lewis, i would philadelphia, bought more and atlanta, to which he was actually able to merge it into a larger company. His company is one of the leading prosthetic companies in the United States today. For the prosthetics that soldiers had to use over the course of the civil war, they were uncomfortable, they were not quite as functional, but they were just functional enough for these soldiers to be able to stand, to be able to stumble, to be able to rejoin society in terms of socialization, maybe even working in some of these shops and working throughout the towns. With the prosthetics we have available today, we can have prosthetics that actually have functioning fingers. We have prosthetics that we can actually run with and can actually perform all the regular duties that we would if we had two legs. And for a lot of these soldiers who had had to have we constructive surgery, it was just enough for them to be able to function comfortably, but with many of these faces, they would not be the same as they had been before the war. But today, for reconstruct of surgery, we take a lot of that for granted that we can have feet, arms, faces, entire body parts reconstructed for both medical purposes for necessity, as well as for beauty. So with the with over four years of civil war, you have over 700,000 casualties that created this life and death fight that was full of challenges from the weather, from the shortage of personnel and food, to being out in the field. But with war and all of the sacrifice and all of this carnage, all of that had not been in vain, for we were able to use their ultimate sacrifice to be able to learn and to be able to study and grow our medical professionals so that we can take the medicine that they did not have and we can use it today to live longer, healthier, fuller lives. Thank you so much for having me here for this symposium discussion today. I hope you guys enjoyed my conversation. If youre interested in learning more information or checking out these medical and surgical histories of the war of the rebellion, they have all been digitized and are all online for you to take a look at and peruse through. So thank you very much for having me. During the battle of gettysburg second day, Union Commander george meade called for reinforcements to beat back an assault on his left flank, leaving only a single brigade to defend is right flank. Next, author dan welch describes how that brigade under general green repulse multiple confederate attacks over the course of the evening of july 2nd, holding the union right despite being outnumbered three to one. This top was part of a symposium on the war in the east, hosted by the emerging