Syphilis and gonorrhea. And by the end of the war, there was enough for the army, there was enough for civilians and enough to give to some of our allies. There was also interest in using it to see if you could prevent people who had been exposed to gonorrhea from getting gonorrhea. The experiments were proposed here at the federal prison in vienna. They were proposing to give these men gonorrhea and then see if penicillin could be used to treat it. But they knew this was likely to be sensitive. So in a memo from the head of medical research, which was part of the office of research and development, ann richards said when any risks are involved, volunteers should only be utilized as subjects. And these, only after the risks have been fully explained and after signed statements had been obtained which shall prove that the volunteer offered his services with full knowledge. Now, this is a pretty clear indication of what you need to do to do experiments on people that might hurt them. It might have had wider applicability had it not been a secret memo. So its unclear who read them. In any event, it turned out to stop after a short time because it was more difficult than you think to give people gonorrhea. They were not stopped totally. And in another series of experiments, some of the same people involved in the United States went down to guatemala and continued these experiments after the war. Malaria. Tremendous problem in sicily, north africa, the pacific theater. You heard from ashley some of the efforts to eradicate malaria. It was harder to treat during the war because quinine, the drug that was most effective for treating malaria, came from plants that were primarily in areas occupied by our enemies. Atabrain was another antimalaria drug. Experiments were done using prison fers. Well come back to prisoners later on in the lecture. One famous subject for the malaria experiments was nathan leopol leopold who had kidnapped someone in chicago. This was in illinois and led to issues in nurenburg trials because it was a question of whether prisoners could give informed consent. Informed consent. C the important in the Second World War came not from medicine, but physics. Dan kevlin talks about physics after the war. In the 1930s, ac scientist was trying to understand pure science or trying to understand the nature of the atom and probably the most exciting scientific news was the fission of the uranium nucleus. The question then rose if energy can be derived from splitting the atom, can you make a bomb . Nobody was quite sure. You needed to be able to separate isotopes. Theres a wonderful play called perpetrating. Have any of you seen perpetrating . Its a great play. It sets up this question of the early years of the war and whether or not you can make a bomb. It revolves around what we know with eisenburg and neils bore who worked out the theory of the atom. It took place in copenhagen, this meeting. We dont know exactly what happened in that meeting. We know they had a split. They used to be very close. And we know heisenburg went back to germany. And we know that shortly afterwards, germany gave up its atemptempts to make a nuclear b. Figured that the problems were so great, that we wouldnt be able to make a bomb. And one of the great historical questions which, again, is very nicely set up in the play, is to speculate why . What happened . And a really horrible thing to speculate on is suppose germany had been able to make a nuclear bomb. They were dropping bombs on Central London. Theres no doubt that 24ethey wd have dropped the bomb on Central London if they could. Making a bomb was hard. You had to separate the isotopes. You had to figure out if a Chain Reaction could be controlled, you needed to have Large Production plants to make large quantities of material, you had to get scientists and people in the military working together, which wasnt that easy. Some of it was done at the university of chicago, some of it was done in facilities built specifically for the government. Lets turn to events at the university of chicago. Lets turn to stag field. This is stag field in 1927. University of chicago played there. Anyone know who the first person to win the Heisman Trophy was and where he went to school . Jay berwanger, university of chicago. University of chicago was a Founding Member of the big ten football conference. They eventually see action ta taking place on stag field. The stadium fell into disrepair. And here you see a chart which shows the Joseph Reagans tertei library. Imagine this, if you can. They tore down their football stadium to build a library. True story. They also left the big ten in 1946. And left room for another member to join the big ten. In 1989, Michigan State university was left to the big ten. They had a president who famously was known to observe that when i feel like exercising, i lie down until the feeling goes away. They were not big in the intercollegiate sports scene. However, in 1942, they were still in the big ten and stag field still exists. It had squash courts. And it was on those squash courts that truly changed the events of history. December 2nd, 1942. This is an artist depiction of the event. There were no photographers present. We dont have any photographs. A very famous physicist was there to see if they could have a self sustained nuclear reaction. There were cadnium rods that soaked up all the neutrons, the clicks of the neutron counter increased and said to sound like crickets chirping. And finally, the pile went clear showing that you could have a selfsustaining reaction. The code word was the italian navigator has landed in new york. So under the stands of stag field at the university of chicago, we found out that we actually had the capacity to build, in theory, a nuclear bomb. The story then shifts. In order to build this bomb, we had to get some really, really smart people and it had to be done in secret. We didnt know that germany was going to make a bomb or japan. So here in new mexico, at an altitude of 7500 feet wauz gathered perhaps the greatest collection of Nuclear Physicists the world has ever seen. Sometimes as many as eight Nobel Laureates were sitting around. They took these physicists from the radar research, they took them from all over the country. They were part of a system that cost them eventually about 2 billion. They worked in complete secrecy to develop a Nuclear Weapon. To develop what they thought would be a Nuclear Weapon. They werent sure. Finally, on july 16th, 1945, ground zero shows here new mexico. The First Nuclear bomb exploded. The question is, what do we do now. This is a subject that was debated a lot more now than it was then. President truman was president when it happened. He seen what had happened from world war i. He wanted an Unconditional Surrender from japan. The emperor wasnt much in the mood to negotiate. Meanwhile, in some pretty brutal battles, working their way across the pacific. Iwajima, okinawa. 12 weeks, 50,000 u. S. Casualty, 90,000 japanese. You thought this was going to be a rehearsal for invading japan. We also werent sure if the bomb would work consistently. It went off once. We could spend a whole course talking about the developments of the atomic bomb. We werent sure if we tried it again if it was going to work or not. In any event, the decision was made and on august 6th, 1965, the enola gay dropped the bomb on hiroshima. War is hell. This is a picture of hiroshima after the bomb was debt nated. A colleague pwho grew up in tokyo, he lived on the fourth floor of an apartment building. He said you could see for miles. Just to give you a sense of how much was wiped out. If you go to tokyo, youll know that the city is quite densely built now. On august 9th, we dropped another atomic bomb on nagasaki. The picture on top is before, the picture on the bottom is after. On the 50th anniversary of the bombing of hiroshima, the hsmit se smithsonian eventually threw their hands up and they wanted to have a discussion of what was going on. They wanted to put things in context. Whatever they tried ran into protests and they simply said we cant do it. 50th anniversaries are usually the toughest. This statue, by the way, was put up on the 25th anniversary. I used to walk past this every day on my way to school. Its more or less in the spot. So what we have here, in a sense, was the triumph of big science. We spent 2 billion and we had an atomic bomb. What should we do now . The war is over. What are we going to do about long term control . After all, the bomb is based on the laws of nature kwhich are available to everybody. The United States proposed a comprehensive evaluation, on site inspections to dispose of all uranium and then we would relinquish our arsenal and scientific information. The soviet union imposed an immediate ban. The United States said the soviets were asking the United States to give up their monopoly and make everything public before they agreed to comply. The u. S. Said the soviets were being unreasonable, Nothing Happened and the cold war was started. The cold war is where a lot of radiation experiments took place. What was the cold war all about . Europe was divided. Dont forget, the yiet and the soviet union were allies. We were partners. We were on the same side. No longer. Mao sin tung took over china. And, of course, in 1949, the soviet union became a weapon. We raced to develop more and more efficient ways of reigning down destruction on each other. This is a titanii missile. This is the combination that came along a little bit later. This missile, which you can see, is no longer functional these days. This is the only one that still exists. This carried 600 times the power of the bomb that went into hiroshima. 600 times. There were three cities, wichita, little rock and tucson. Each one of them had 18 different sites. People who ran this missile were sitting under ground. They didnt know where the missile was targeting. They had keys. They had to turn the keys simultaneously. The idea here was mutually assured destruction. The idea here was weve got overwhelming Nuclear Power. If you attack us, were going to attack you. Kind of like two scorpions in a bottle. Each knowing if one stings the other, they both die. And thats why i wanted you to watch dr. Strange love. Dr. Strange love, on the one hand, its a comedic farce. Its black comedy. Its one of coopers greatest ever. It really gives you a sense of what the cold war was like. At the very girning of the movie, theres a disclaimer that says this is fictional and the u. S. Military says theres no way that this could happen. But the notion of b52 bombers being poised to take off and overfly russia was real. There was an essential doomsday scenario. I personally grew up in columbus, mississippi. Its the home of a Strategic Air command base. And i was there when the base was closed during the cuban missile crisis. As is depicted in dr. Strange love. They closed the base. People said at the epd of the runway, waiting to jump into a b52 and go nuke everything. This is the war room. What did you guys think of strange love . Did you like it . Glad you watched it . This is, of course, major t. J. Pingpong riding it down. This role was originally offered to john wayne, but he turned it down. This affected the way people lived. Again, were going to get to the experiments 234 a second. But do you understand . This is a manual for survival under atomic attack. If you happened to be bombed, dont rush right outside. Dont take chances. This is a real if the Nuclear Weapon is coming, you dont have anywhere to go, jump into a trench and cover yourself up with dried laundry. That will protect you from the heat. So people live with this notion of what do we do if theres a nuclear attack. Fallout shelters shown here. People had fallout shelters. What do you do if youve only got enough food and water for one family and another family wants to come and jump into your fallout shelter. I think a more realistic question is if nuclear war comes and you manage to get into your fallout shelter, just what do you think youre connelling out to when you finally come out . The korean war. This was a cold war. It was a very hot war in a very real sense. We competed on many grounds. When sputnik went up, it was a huge deal. They launched another satellite and this one had a dog in it. So they sent back telemetry showing that the dog was still alive. So we decided to do it, too. It didnt work. So were in this conflict with the soviet union. Its not entirely clear that were winning. Finally, the last part of the cold war is the cuban missile crisis which comes along in 1962. The United States saw evidence of the soviet union putting missiles in cuba just south of us. We said bring them out. We danced around the issue of nuclear war for some time until eventually, a deal was struck. And we did not have a nuclear war. I want to talk about some of the specific experiments that went on once you have a sense of what life was like. Any questions thus far . And the cold war or what life was like during the cold war . What the ethos was like . Were going to talk about experiments. Were going to talk about experiments on patients, on children, on the general population. We are not going to touch on soldiers being used for radiational experiments. Its a fascinating topic, but its just we dont have time for that. Its a whole nother topic. And then were going to talk about the natural risk and what people understood, then, about the risk. But our story, we have to go backse back up in the mountains. People werent sure if they could get enough uranium 235. So glen seymore helped to develop a new element called plutonium. It should have been called pl o plutoium, but he liked the way plutonium sounded better. What were the Health Effects of this plutonium . It didnt seem to break the skin. What about if you were to ingest it. We knew it was not good for you because in the interwar period, there were women painting luminous dials on watches. If you had a glowinthedark watch, it had radium on it. So women were paid to paint it on the brush and they would put the brush in their mouth to get the tip exactly right and then they would swallow the uranium and they would get a bunch of diseases. So we knew ingesting uranium was dangerous. So in 1944, in room d119, a 23yearold chemist by the name of don mastik, a promising young graduate of berkley was working with plutonium. Like so many things in medicine, this started with a mistake. Potentially, a pretty serious mistake. He got it in his mouth. He could taste the acidic taste of the plutonium. He tried to spit out everything he could. They called for help, but he swished his mouth out every 15 minutes, did it 12 times. They pumped his stomach. They tried to extract out as much as they could. This is important stuff. The stuff we could extract from his stomach may be what we need for the botch. He didnt seem to have any horrible ill effects except for many weeks, if he walked across the room, the radiation counters would blow off the scale. But we knew he wasnt going to be the first person to ingest plutonium and we didnt know what it did. We didnt know what the Health Effects were. So we started to do a series of experiments. At oak ridge, at rochester, at the university of chicago and at others. First pashltient was at oak rid. He was a cement worker. He was in a car accidents. He was injected with 4. 7 micrograms of plutonium. He wasnt told he was injected. He wasnt told what it was. The very word, plutonium, was top secret. The fact that it existed was top secret. We want today see what would happen and how it would be extreated. University of chicago, 68yearold man with advanced ka cancer of the mouth and tongue. Here, they were trying to pick patients who were likely to die. The third was a young man with hoj hodgkins. And we learned that the fe l kal secretion rate was different. Its unclear if they were even told that they were being injeblgted. Similar kinds of things happened at other institutions, as well. The Massachusetts General Hospital took patients with grain cancer. They were injected with uranium to see where it would go. One of them didnt actually have brain cancer. They thought he did. It turned out he had some bleeding. So all of these experiments were done without getting consent, without informing patients, in order that we could continue to build bombs and take care of the people who were helping to build these bombs. The last set of experiments happened in cincinnati. In 1960, 1972. So called total body raduation. These experiments were done in some other places, as well. The theory was if you had cancer, maybe total body radiation would help slow the cancer. Actually, we had some pretty good evidence that it didnt work for the cancer. But the department of defense was very interested in the effects of total body radiation. If theres a nuclear war and people get radiates, are they going to be able to function . Will a pilot whos able to fly a plane be able to land a plane . Will they be able to fight . Would they be able to work . Ironically, the people they wanted to do this experiment on were precisely the people who were least likely to derive any benefit from. We knew that certain kinds of cancer were sensitive to radiation. Radiating those patients might expect to help. They wanted to know what the effects of radiation would be on a healthy, 23yearold pilot. That could be studied by radiating people whose cancers were not going to respond to the radiation. Most of the patients who were radiates were poor. Most of the patients who were raiduated were african american. All of them had cancer. Some of them werent all that sick. Some of them were still amulatory. Some of them were still going to work. The radiation had some pretty serious effects. Out of the 920 people who were radiates, 21 of them were dead within a month. We know when you radiate people, theres side effects. You get news ya. You get seriously nausea. They didnt want to give medicines to reduce the nausea because they wanted to know what the effects would be. They didnt want the patients to be informed that nausea might be a side effect. That might influence them to get nauseated. These patients were not everyone given the basic medicines that were given to other people at the time to help prevent the side effects. These experiments, as i say, ended in 1972. 1972 is a date youll remember. Thats when the tuskeegee experiments became public. We move on to the radiation experiments through children. Any questions about these radiation experiments . Thats actually a very good question. And it raises all sorts of issues. Not to play word games, but the question is what is meant by informed consent. And the motion of conformed consent as we understand it hadnt really been articulated. The memo that i showed you earlier for the gonorrhea experiment suggested that in 1942, the head of the committee on medical research thought that something very much like informed consent was absolutely essential. Clearly, that was not being followed. Well talk about sources in a little bit. But one of the questions 1 how do you know if somebody had informed consent. Some of the physicians claimed that they got informed consent. There was a lawsuit, by the way. Other questions . All right. The walter e. Fernan School Funded by the National Institutes of health, the Atomic Energy commission and quaker oats. This was an experiment on breakfast food. Kwhirn were given breakfast food with radioactive calcium to see how that food would be absorbed. The rationale for this was that quaker wanted to get a leg up on cream of wheat. They wanted to show that their cereals were better absorbed and better spread throughout the body. Im not making this up. How do they get them to do this . Heres an excerpt from a letter. Letter to parents, 1953. We have dom some examinations with the Nutritional Department with the purpose of helping improve the nutrition of our children. I want to point out that just like we saw, if you remember in some of the letters in the tuskeegee experiments, asking the man to come in for a spinal. The man demanding institutions, like the Alabama State board of health. Here, Massachusetts Institute of technology. The blood test consists of a special breakfast containing a certain amount of calcium. If you sign up for this, you get to be a member of the science club. If youre a member, you get a quart of milk daily, you get to go to a baseball game and to the beach. Nothing in here that says were going to give you radioactive traces. This raises all sorts of questions similar to the ones we talked about with the willowbrook experiments. The willowbrook experiments, by the way, were also funded, in part, by the military. First of all, can children give informed consent . This was not a great institution, by the way. Did parents feel like they had any choice . A quart of milk a day may not sound like a big deal, but if you dont have it, is this too much coercion . It turns out when you look at this critically, the levels of radiation probably did not hurt very much at all. But none the less, it raises question on what its appropriate to do experiments on children without informing them or their parents. Any questions . Okay. So this is the cold war and were into radiation. The idea of Nuclear Power is very good. And the hope is that we will soon have Nuclear Powered airplanes. Seriously being discussed. And pilots flying Nuclear Powered airplanes are going to be exposed to a lot of radiation. Who else is going to be exposed to radiation . Space flights. People that go up in space. People who work with Nuclear Power. If there is a nuclear attack. What are they worried about . They were especially concerned, as was referred to in the kinder, gentler years, the family jewels. Test kals contain rapidly dividing cells. If theres radiation exposure, those are cells that you would expect to be more likely to be hit by the radiation. This could produce chromosome damage. Test kals can, more easily than some bodily organs, thoo can be radiated without having to radiate the entire body. So in the oregon state and Washington State prisons, there were a series of radiation experiments done to determine the effect of radiation on testicles. Why prisoners . Well, these are healthy men who arent going anywhere for a while. Its also a way to give them a chance to pay back to society what they have done. A machine was maid to raid yat the testicles. Men were asked to lie on their stomach. Testicles were placed in water and then they would be radiated. This would be followed by biopsies and then by vasectomy. Just as the radiation caused troublesome damage, they didnt want these men to have children. The recruit was strictly by word of mouth. They saw it as sensitive and they didnt want it to be too public. There was a rather loose and informal psychiatric examine nation and a consultation with the chaplain. The chaplain was required to certify that the men in question were not Roman Catholic because if they were Roman Catholic, they were not to have a vasectomy. Needless to say, there was no benefit in terms of their health. They did get money. They were paid 25 cents a day. They got 25 for a testicular biopsy and another 25 for a vasectomy at the end of the experiment. 25 in those days was roughly equal to 200 today. Ill let those of you in the audience contemplate whether youll have a testicular biopsy and if im reading your expressions correctly, the answer is no. So these were another set of radiational experiments that went on in the prisons. They were stopped in 1970 probably because of changing environment. The administrators were concerned that prisoners could not fully consent similar experiments were done in Washington State. Now, its swrinteresting to thi about human experimentation in general. The concerns about experimenting on prisoners in the 1940s and 50s were not the same as they are today. That they werent going to get adequate lit punished. Youre going to be in the hospital. Youre going to get better food. If youre in prison, youre supposed to be punished for your crime. There was a firm in the American Medical Association as being a le yit mgitimate way of doing experiments. By 1972, 90 of phase i drug trials came from prison. Phase i drug trials are when you have a new drug and you want to try it out and see what happens perhaps not surprisingly, tended to be more white than african american. We were way out of touch than the entire rest of the world. The nurenburg code says you cant coerce people in prisons. If youre in prison, you cant make a free choice of what youre doing. Eventually, in the United States, it became essentially nonkpis tebt. They came up only for one day in hearings. Prisoner experiments. Any questions . This is hanford washington. Its a lovely town. Its on the columbia river. Its remote. And, in 1942, it was the site for a plutonium vat. And for many years, it was a place where a lot of plutonium was made. It was picked for a couple of reasons. One is there was ready access to fresh water for cooling. Columbia river. Second reason is, it was out of the way. If youre making plutonium, and plutonium is top secret, its out of the way. Heres a billboard that says dont talk. Silence means security. Loose talk is a Chain Reaction for espionage. This is how they advertise themselves. Atomic frontier days, a new life on the old frontier. Recall that the soviet union exploded its first bomb in 1949. How did we know what they were doing . We know what they were doing because the radiation, when you put it up in the at mos feesh, it spreads all over the world and we can pick up evidence of radioactivity here. How do we interpret that . Well, thats hard. We wanted to if i can your out what radiation was like when it was put into the atmosphere. How did it come down . Where did it come down . How did you detect it . In what better way would you find out what thats like than to intentionally release radiation from a plant. The fuel that was use was young. And so they started releasing radioactivity into the atmosphere. So that they could study how and when and where it came down. Because this is top secret, theyre not bothering to tell the people in the area. Oh, by the way, well be putting a lot of radiation into the atmosphere. There were problems. The weather wasnt what they expected or desired. We now know drinking milk from cows that were raised in contaminated pastures is a great source of radiation. When they did go out to check and see how the radiation spread around, they did so with considerable secrecy. They pretended to be Animal Husbandry specialists for the department of agriculture going out in the farms to check the cows. If youre a spy, you think about, you know, taking on a false persona. But here, you know, this is in the United States. This is in your backyard. Youve got someone whos working for the Atomic Energy commission who claims to be an Animal Husbandry expert to come and check your cows. Its unclear how much damage was actually done, how many people were actually injured. Its also clear that there was probably more radiation released from the normal operation of the plants. They released about 80 times as much radiation by accident. But theres an enormous sense of distrust and personal violation in the country. Heres a cartoon in the 1940s and 50s. If you can read the back, yes, sir, its reassuring to know if we were in any kind of danger here, our government would let us know right away. So you lose enormous trust when you start dumping radiation out into the field. Youre also now using the entire population as your experimental subject. This was done not only at handford. There were Nuclear Explosions released to the atmosphere that impacted holy lands. There was some concerns that the spanish and native american residents find themselves more often downstream of the releases. Before i transition to how we know about this and how experiments came to life, any questions about the experiments . How many of you knew about these experiments before this class . Word of mouth . Reading about them . Word of mouth . If they were top secret and they were top secret. There were early reports and rumors that some americans had been injected with plutonium. A congressional report in 1986 is called Americas Nuclear guineau pigs. It was written in fairly bland congressional language. A journalist working for the local paper wrote about the story the way journalists write about stories like this. Which is to say she got names and faces. And the stories are much more compelling when theres an actual Person Associated with them. I mentioned a few names of people here. She wrote some incredible stories. Shes got a wonderful book out called, the plutonium fights. But, really, we started to find out a lot more about these with this the book that came out of the commission. This is the rather thick book. This is from the advisory it was created in january of 1994. President bill clinton ordered all federal agencies to comb their files and to make them public. He said, i want all the information about these radiation experiments out there. And as a result, a ton of stuff was declassified. And one of the things thats happened as a result of this book, and this commission, was that those declassified documents are now publicly available. And lots of people have gone to them and written about them. The commission was made of historians, philosophers, radiologists, businesses, even a private citizen. They were deluged with inquiries of people who wondered if something happened to them or their loved ones. One of the Staff Members here who is typing this, shared with me that his father was actually at hanford in this period. That makes you wonder what was going on. They held lots of hearings. There were groups of people who felt aggrieved. Veterans, convict, mothers, people in the wrong place at the wrong time. They grappled with the tension about how do you make judgment. How do you differentiate between wrongness of actions and blameworthiness of action. Its one thing to say wrong, and another thing to say whos to blame. They were asked to decide who should receive monetary damages. Who deserves money for this. Who was wronged enough that the government ought to pay. They came up with a fairly short list. And they were criticized for that. A report was released and president clinton apologized on october the 3rd, 1995. And on the evening news that night, i dont think it was even mentioned, because also on october the 3rd, 1995, the jury came down with the verdict in the o. J. Simpson trial. So an example of bad timing to release the report. A quaker outside of this independently settled for 1. 5 million for the experiments that were held. This is a wonderful book. This is really a tremendous job of historical and policy making research. And you may have noticed that some of what im telling you has not been quite as Crystal Clear as it might be. And that is, its because of the nature of the Historical Research that many of the records of what happened are incomplete. We just dont know. Some are contradictory. Some things we dont have protocols for. You asked about informed consent. We dont know. For many of these experiments. Maybe because it was being done in wartime. Maybe because it was topsecret. Maybe because nobody bothered to write it down. Maybe because maybe what were doing here is a little dicey, and maybe we dont want to keep records, and maybe we need to lose these records. We dont know. I think the committee did as good a job as they possibly could of finding out as much as they possibly could about this. A fundamental question to grapple with is how do we make retrospective judgments. How do we assess what people did in the past of our own perspective. Again, taking informed consent as an example, a lot of the concepts of informed consent werent fully articulated until well after this time. So its really not fair to go back and say, they didnt do things the way we would have done them. They did say, the committee did come up with an apartheid method of judgments that makes a lot of sense. They said there are basic Ethical Principles. That stand the test of time and place. They then, of course, pointed out that all of those Ethical Principles have exceptions. Then they said there are certain policies of Government Departments or agencies. You ought to follow the policies of wherever youre working. The problem here is that if the policies are secret, how do you know that . Finally, they said there are the rules of professional ethics. That people need to Pay Attention to. They did conclude, and i agree that its not okay to just use people because theyre dying. Some of the rationale for some of the plutonium experiments and total body irradiation experiments and other injections was that these people are dying, and we might as well get some information from them. Being hill and hospitalized does not justify using people the means to end their lives. You still have to respect them as people. So what are the key lessons from these radiation experiments . Ive only scratched the surface. And i really hope that you will go and read more about them in books like eileen wellsomes book. Jonathan marino has a book on the experiments, the human irradiation experiments. It has a lot more detail. One of the lessons is that medicine and the quest for knowledge has to be looked at in the specific social, and economic context. It just cant be understood if you take it out of the context. These radiation experiments started in the context of a world war, and continued by and large in the context of a cold war, which turned quite hot on occasion. Which was characterized by secrecy, which was characterized by fear that these weapons could be used against us. Nonetheless, some of the features that came out of these experiments continue to this day. The penchant for largescale research, for big research, for the idea that if you want to do a big project, that you can get government funding to do huge, big protocols. Even smaller scale protocols have a lot to do with the era that this comes out of. The idea of doing studies that go across several different hospitals, for example. People got used to the idea that they ought to be funded to do research. And many institutions, such as the university of michigan and others, are built on this notion that people doing science, people doing physics, people doing medicine should get funding, should get the funding they need to do the research. One of the casualties of these experiments is trust. Even if nobody got hurt, there arent very many people who think its a good idea to give children radioactive oatmeal without telling anybody or to release radiation from a plutonium plant to see what happens. Even if at the end of the day nobody got hurt, i think it impedes the kind of trust that helps to bind society together in the best possible examples. I tried to give you a sense of the radiation experiments, what happened, what some of the consequences were. Weve got a few minutes. Ill ask if there are any questions or comments. No . Okay. Thank you all for your attention. Well see you on monday. At the medical science building. Thank you very much. [ applause ] this weekend on the cspan networks, friday night on cspan, native American History. Then on saturday, live allday coverage from the National Book festival science pavilion. Saturday evening from bbc scotland, a debate on scotlands upcoming decision on whether to end its Political Union with england. Sunday, q a with judge robert katzman, chief justice of the Second Circuit court of appeals. He shares his approach to interpreting law passed by congress. Friday at 8 00 p. M. , indepth with former congressman ron paul on cspan2. And saturday, live coverage of the National Book festival from the history and biography pavilions. Speakers, interviews, and viewer callins with authors. And sunday at 9 00 p. M. Eastern, afterwards, with william burrows, talking about his book the asteroid threat. On American History tv on cspan3 on friday, about the 1969 apollo 11 moon landing. Saturday, on the civil war, general William Tecumseh shermans atlanta campaign. Sunday night, a look at election laws and Supreme Court case of bush versus gore. Find our Television Schedule at cspan. Org and let us know what you think about the programs youre watching. Call us at 2026263400, or on twitter, join the cspan conversation, like us on facebook, follow us on twitter. Our special American History tv programming continues over the next several hours with a look at how music reflects the era. Talking about how world war i changed popular music. In a little less than an hour and a half, musicians may have is staples and graham nash discuss the role of music as a catalyst for social change. In two and a half hours, Indiana University professor michael mcgur discusses feminisms impact on popular music in the 1960s and 70s. 100 years after the beginning of what was called the great war, author michael lesser looks back at the music of world war i. He demonstrates how songs reflected the wartime experiences of soldiers and those back home, from the sweethearts left behind to the soldiers returning from the front. And he argues that the music industry, including song writers like irving berlin, contribut