It was the first time that the word was used to refer to a copper foundry that the jewish were actually placed in. It was known as the ghetto. And i rely here in talking about this upon another sort of monumental field of history, and the field of the early modern historians who have done painstaking work on this topic including professor tension in the whose work i relied on is a him as your account. The about the accomplished early modern historians as they have shown that when the palace of the dodge decided to place them in a ghetto, they were not trained to create a whole framework for how jews should be treated. They were really trying to solve a very particular problem at a very particular moment. The problem they were trying to solve is a dated people to loan money to their lower middle classes and working class people and there couldnt have their working class is order to get long past again on a boat and travel 30 or 40 minute or in our way to get small loans. They needed them right there in the city and so they created a space for them right there and missed most catholic city. They were not trying to create a framework, for example, for how jews should be treated everywhere. But they created a solution for their own problem. And then, that word came to be known as this place where the tree into oblivion. As i see it, the crucial moment was not venice, which is now celebrating its 500th anniversary and which to trade to buy the very least could say semiflourished. As the early modern historians have demonstrated, great accomplishment in the production of votes and philosophy and drama and family life. It was not the ghetto of venice really that was the crucial ghetto in my opinion, but it was really the ghetto of palm which was forged in 1555 by pope paul and according to Kenneth Stowe and another monumental work on this topic was really created in an absurd to try to get the jews to convert and also at a moment in history when the counter reformation was leaving to a search in need on the part of the vatican to make grown into a more good space and to create an iron maiden in which the jews could be shown as an example of what happens when you dont convert. But when the pope created this ghetto, he wrote it up in this powerful pull this powerful bowl, was distributed around the world. I see that as a very crucial moment in those years because now the ghetto becomes a cognitive framework that becomes an exam will of how jews should be and can be segregated around the world. My latest missed it leaving home as a french teenager lafayette and this book tells the story of him leaving home and his pregnant teenage life to come to america to throw in with George Washingtons continental army. I was referring and i will take questions i wanted to read this section of his voyage to america in his early time and then i will read a little tangent about and her wrote bookseller to pander to the subject of the proceedings. [laughter] so in 1777, lafayette had absconded to america, but his own ships to come here. The king of france is trying to keep them at home. His family is trying to keep them at home because as i mentioned she is pregnant and once he makes it onto the ship he is purchased across the atlantic, hes extending his wife, he starts writing his wife audrey in his letters to try to explain why he has abandoned her and their forthcoming child is saying about that while history might useful a great fathers, recorded history is not where to find him. [laughter] at sea, lafayette and though the grandeur of his mission to his wife, audrey and attempted to include. He wrote i have as a favor to me you will become a Good American. She is a teenage french aristocrat from one of the most illustrious families in france. She lives in a mansion in paris when she isnt living up to mansion in per side. Asking her to become a Good American also u. S. And in a position to ask her any favors. Nevertheless, he proclaimed to his wife the welfare of america is intimate a bound up with the happiness of humanity. She is going to become the deserving and sure refuge of virtue of honesty, tolerance, equality and of the tranquil liberty. To establish such a forthright dreamland decency, who when shoot a few thousand englishmen just as long as mr. Bean wasnt one of them. Last night alas for my end of his career, from our end of history, theres a big file cabinet locking the view of this week nature lafayette were told in this or that government keeps the folders full of indian treaties, the chinese exclusion act and nsa monitored electronic messages pertinent to National Security which is apparently all of them, including the one in which i asked my mom for her son how to get a red sharpie staying out of couch upholstery. Lafayette confided in his life and becoming a friend to offer service is to this intriguing republic agreeing to it only my frank s. And my good well. No ambition, no selfinterest in working for glory i worked for their happiness. [inaudible conversations]