Welcome back everybody, as you know weve been in the gilded age for sometime now, and weve already seen the Technological Innovations that made some of this economic expansion possible. We saw both the economic transformations and the effects of those changes in the economy, as far as lifestyle, both for the very rich, these opulent robber baron lifestyles on the one hand, and on the other hand of the very poor, whether it was the People Living in the shacks of the new england mill towns, or whether it was when we explored the gilded age city, the increasing problems of housing sanitation, that came with this rapid, and in many ways chaotic, growth of cities in the late 19th century. All of it accompanied, of course, my problem is going along immigration. And then last time, we saw in particular that there was some frustration with days new gilded age regime, as we talked about the farmers in this period. That lecture really could have been called discontent in the gilded age part one, but today, we turn our attention mostly back to the industry, and in some ways, to the cities as well. I want to look at different types of frustration with this new order in america. We started with the song eight hours, which was a popular label or labor anthem in the 18 eighties. And you heard the chorus, eight hours for work, eight hours for arrest, eight hours for what we will. And in some ways, that song speaks to what were gonna be talking about today. On the one hand, eight hours for work, eight hours for arrest. Were talking about labor relations, were talking about more broadly speaking political economy, were talking about the potential for state regulation and these arguments over that. But that is somewhat straightforward. How about eight hours for what we will . In the song they say we want to feel the sunshine. In other words, we are not machines, we are human beings. We want to have a life. We want to have a life outside work. And even those on the top of this new gilded age order are, as we will see toward the end, in many ways growing anxious over this new world that is coming about. First we look at economics. As with so much else this master, a lot of our stories start with the railroads. Youve seen how much the Transcontinental Railroad changed the west and the economy. Ive already told you that that Railroad Building bonanza did not stop in 1869 when they drove the golden spike in. Instead, we continue to build by the end of the century. There were four trans railroads. There were all sorts of tributary lines to connect different parts of the west to those main corridors. It seemed like a very good investment. Indeed, the lions share of the stocks on the New York Stock Exchange in this period were not industrial stocks, they were railroad stocks. And a lot of people scrambled to get in on the ground floor. One of those projects was the Northern Pacific railroad. The fellow who won the right to be the chief fundraiser for that project was jake koch, a very well respected financier. He had been a manger finance or of the union effort during the civil war. Investors are starting to realize in the early 1870s that perhaps in our zeal for Railroad Building, we had perhaps control far. Perhaps we overbuilt. Perhaps the Railroad Bubble is about to burst. All of a sudden jacob had trouble raising money. He had trouble getting alone. People found out he was over extended. Not somber temper 18 1873, jay koch and company declared bankruptcy. Gwen cook went under, it drag down other businesses and railroads and banks with him. A panic hit wall street. You see a picture here. Beginning september 20th, the New York Stock Exchange, which i said was heavily populated by railroad stocks, closed for ten days. Over the next two months, 55 railroads went bankrupt. It did not stop there. By 1874, 25 of the nations Railroad Bonds were in the thought. It wasnt just railroads that were affected. Over the following two years, there were over 18,000 business failures. Many people, including this cartoonist, clung to the traditional view that ultimately this was a necessary evil. Right . Failure is part of the capitalist system and so we should see the panic as the cartoonist does, as a sanitation officer cleaning all of the trash out of wall street. And maybe so, but in the meantime, a lot of people had to suffer. In the meantime, Railroad Construction ground to a halt. Unemployment skyrocketed in many sectors. In some cities, unemployment was as high as 25 and jobless nice remained right for the next five years. At the same moment, people were also starting to ask questions about whether or not the railroads should have so much power within this new national economy. We saw the farmers asking these questions very loudly last time, didnt we . Here we see Railroad TycoonWilliam Henri vanderbilt, the member of a family weve gotten to know rather well these past few weeks. Pictured as the modern colossus of railroads along with some of his colleagues, cyrus field and then authorities jay gould. As we saw last time, farmers considered their rates and their control of the economy to be extortion. And indeed, other groups were starting to feel this way as well. The political efforts of frustrated farmers and some allied industrialists led to early attempts at state intervention. In the early 1870s, some states past what we call the granger laws. They did things like set maximum frightened Grain Elevator rates. Forbid discrimination against short hauls. Many urban consumers felt the railroads were overcharging them, so its not just farmers who are frustrated. They created state railroad commissions to supervise and enforce this new Regulatory Regime. This happened in places like minnesota, iowa, wisconsin and illinois. In illinois, its particularly important for us because it was there that the law was challenged by the firm of meng and scott, who were accused of having overcharged their customers at their Grain Elevator in chicago. They challenged their 100 dollar fine and it went to the Supreme Court. In 1877, by a seven to majority, the court under chief justice weight declared that when private property is devoted to a public use, it is subject to public regulation. And incidentally, the federal government is not acting so there is a door open for the states to step in. But do not consider this a long term win for state level regulation because in 1886, a six three majority at the Supreme Court declared another case, this time the wombats railroad versus illinois, that under the Commerce Clause of the constitution, states were forbidden from imposing direct burdens on interstate commerce. Illinois Regulatory Regime was considered a direct burden on a railroad, which was considered interstate commerce and therefore state level regulation was severely hampered moving forward after the wabash case. This along with a couple of other cases in the 1880s which extended 14th amendment protections to corporations, acted to undermine the state level regulations. But that doesnt mean the public stopped being frustrated with the abuses of the railroads. In fact, public outrage over the wabash decision led to passage of the interstate commerce act by congress in 1887. It created the interstate commerce commission. It made it forbidden to have it special rates and rebates for powerful shippers. You remember rockefellers scheme from a few weeks ago. There would be no right discrimination against short hauls. There would be public inspection of rates. And if you abused these regulations, you could face up to a 5000 dollar fine. So take that vanderbilt. Moreover, in 1890, they went from growing public frustration over the strengths of the trusts in particular, the standard oil trust, Like Congress to pass the sherman antitrust act, which is named for senator jon sherman of ohio, the brother of william sherman. By 1890, 27 states had passed Anti Trust Laws and now the congress was joining the parade. The sherman law and the languages is important for us moving forward. The sherman law outlawed every contract, combination or conspiracy in restraint of trade. Again imposing a 5000 dollar fine for offense and potentially also a year in prison. But i dont want you to be misled. This hardly represents the foundation of a robust Regulatory Regime. For one thing, the president s of the gilded age were generally uncomfortable with this sort of state intervention. They held to a more traditional laissezfaire view. So Benjamin Harrison was president and signed this law because it was in a court with Public Opinion, but he didnt do too much to enforce it. The same can be said for his successors, whether they be a democrat like Grover Cleveland or a republican like william mckinley. Indeed, in moments when the federal government had tried to enforce it, they were smacked down by the courts. In 1895, the court defanged the sherman act when it came to industrial combinations. Because in the case of u. S. Versus eccc night, the court declared eight to one that the sherman act did not apply to manufacturing monopolies. The u. S. Sugar finding Company Controlled more than 90 of its sector. Certainly, this is consolidation, right . But they say production is not interstate commerce. That is something different. So they have narrowly defined the powers given to enforcement under the sherman antitrust act. It would not be until the 20th century that we sherman act was used successfully against industrial monopolies, something we will talk about in a later lecture. It wasnt only the government and Public Opinion, but also workers who were growing frustrated with the commands of gilded age businessmen. And like the public and the legislature, his labor would be largely frustrated and its protests. The hard times of the 18 seventies 1870s meant a lot of things for workers. One thing it meant was that hard times be got four wages, less availability of work, less security instability, and at times harsh measures by men to try and keep their companies afloat 1870s railroads in particular try to respond to the crises of the seventies by cutting their own rates to try to get their business and out to their competitors. How do they make up for the losses of having these rights . They cut their workers wages. That led to a decade of mounting frustrations by the workers. There were a series of localized strikes in 1876 and in early 1877. And then, resenting the wage cuts and resenting the public opprobrium that was often heaped on the workers if they stood up for themselves because it was believed by many, especially in the press and government, that railroads are a public good so if you strike against a railroad, youre doing something especially evil. So the workers began to resent all of this and their resented resentment exploded in the summer of 1877. A new group called the train mens union struck against the ball court at Ohio Railroad beginning july 16th, 1877. Baltimore police broke up the first round of pickets, but the next day workers took control of a key railroad drunk junction in martin spurt, west virginia. A battle between local police and a sorely mob required state militia intervention and eventually federal troops to restore order. Within days, these sorts of scenes were running in a dozen Railway Centers crowned the country. And baltimore, a mob tried to trap the militia in an armory. The soldiers fired and killed ten people. In pittsburgh, rioters burned rail yards and destroyed 2000 cars and the depots, all while exchanging fire with troops. Strikers in indianapolis seized control of the people and haunted all cars and trains, except for trains carrying mail, for reasons we will see in a moment. By july 25th, all lines outside of new england and the south were being affected in one way or another. So you could feel the tension on streets around the country. In chicago, businessmen patrolled the streets with guns during a potential revolution. In buffalo, the revolution was underway and crowd swarm the yards of new york central and claimed control of depots of the Lakeshore Railroad and the erie railroad. Ultimately however, this Great Railroad strike of 77 collapsed. First of all, the depression was still going and unemployment was still high, so it was very easy to find desperate people to work as strike breakers. Unemployment was still around 8 nationally, these are estimates. Some companies were fearful of continued strikes and continued chaos and were willing to negotiate. But ultimately, we cannot call this in any way a win for labor. If anything, the press became increasingly indignant over this outburst over this street action. They called on the states to beef up their militias to put down future agitation, state level militia units were enhanced and armies were constructed to prepare for the next events. Meanwhile, conflagrations like those in the eighth late 1870s caused many workers to ask a fundamental question. Want this be more easily accomplished if we had some Better Organization . And in this, many of them turned to a fledgling organization, the nights of labor. The nights of labor started as a sort of secret society founded by your riot stevens, a garment worker in philadelphia who is obsessed with all sorts of rituals and secret oaths and so forth. But after 1877, many workers became interested in organization and they looked to the nights. This was often spontaneous, the nights would never they were never effective recruiters. But people were looking for an organization, and so 1879, the light nights of labor had 8000 members. By 1882, they had near 42,000. In the meantime, they were taken over by new leadership under terrence powder lee, who moved the group away from ritual toward reform. In the 18 seventies and eighties, they began stressing monetary reform, like we discussed last time from the farmers, they began discussing an eighthour day, organizing collaborative steams among workers, trying to gain state and local political influence, many within the nights of labor began embracing the ideas of henry george, who called for a single tax on land. Whats interesting, besides their wide ranging agenda, is a broad membership. This group, sort of anomalous, for this buried in america, especially in labor. This group was highly inclusive, they reached across lines of craft, lines of skill, skilled and unskilled workers. It is immigrants, and native born workers. There are catholics and protestants, in this organization. There are black members as well as white members, female members as well as male members. And so, this was a very large inclusive organization. And they were building a lot of momentum in the 1880s. Well see in a moment they will have a precipitous decline, however and at the very moment. Where we see them start to decline new a totally different ideal in labor comes to the fore floor. That is a craft unity. And that is the American Federation labour, founded in 1886, their leader is samuel jumpers, whose papers have held over at the library, if you wanna learn more. And, and they were inclusive they were focused only on elite craftsman. This is strategic, you could say because they have more leverage when it comes to negotiation, and skilled crafts are easily rebate replaceable. And they had a much narrower goals. The phrase that new gompers spoke was peering simple unionism. Were going to get a better wage, shorter hours, were not trying to change the world, bo. So this more conservatives, elite unionism, would be the one that would survive the chaos that were going to talk about now, moving forward. In the meantime, the 18 eighties would witness recapitulation of many of the troubling themes of the 18 seventies. Once again, Major Economic panic, this one in 1884, followed, once again by industrial downturn, followed once again, by labor troubles. Most noteworthy in this time was a period known as the great upheaval. This is sporadic series of events in many ways, and they have 1884 which was a successful strike. By an organized Railroad Workers against the union of pacific railed ward. The railroad capitulated within two days, and the workers said, now that were on a roll lets join the nights of labor. Lets make this a permanent fixture. In june of 1884, we saw the beginning of a major mind strike in their river valley of ohio, where 4000 workers, plus their families in the community, went out on strike. The strike lasted six months. The minors lost a strike, but what is noteworthy about this, its that once again and taught them the usefulness of organization and coordination. Because if you go on strike, you dont get paid. So the strike doesnt last very long, you have to eat. But, they were able to organize and raise funds, they had 100,000 dollar relief find, that enabled them to keep this fight on for six months. And once again, it demonstrates to workers the value of organization. Then in march of 1885, came in major strike against emma sorry pacific railroad, which was trying to have a pay cut. That strike spread through virtually the entire Southwestern Railroad network, most of which was owned by our friend gould. The governors of nebraska, and chances intervened in this case on behalf of the workers, which i think, probably tells us more about gould, then it does about the governors. But nevertheless, gold gave back the pay cut. And once again, workers saw value in organization. It all meant dramatic growth for the nights of labor. In 1885, they had 100,000 members. By 1886, they had 700,000 members. But, this would be the nights high water mark. I know one reason for it to decline, there is a first of several of very famous and telling episodes within American Labor relations, we can call them, really, explosions and the gilded age. And that is the hay market affair. There was a strike at them according to works, on chicago, on may 4th, 1886. They were calling for an eighthour day, there was violence between strikers and police, at least two workers were killed by police. And there were anarchists in chicago, and they said this violence to us is a wonderful example of our broader critique of american capitalism in the american system, and so we want to take advantage of this moment to use this tragedy this tragedy in order to demonstrate to people the validity of our rights. So they called for protest. Beginning may 4th. The protests were a well attended by the working class, especially german immigrants, there was a large turnout. It was peaceful, by all accounts, at least at the beginning. The rhetoric was relatively tame, according to the relatively tamed mayor of chicago, mainstream politician, harrison, who was there and witnessed events, and was satisfied a things were gonna be fine and he won home. In fact, a lot of people were deciding that things were okay, and it was time to home. But it wasnt. Because, what happened next, as the rally was starting to break up, someone threw a pipe bomb and a policeman was killed. And the police began to fire, and a shoot out and suit, and in an additional six police and four protesters were killed in the cross fire. We never figured out who threw the pipe bomb, but at doesnt really matter. We knew who to blame. The anarchists. These germans, these radicals. Ford ended up being executed, others received long prison sentences, one committed suicide by blowing himself up before he could be executed. Later on, in the 1890s, john up guild, then you governor in illinois, a german born himself, pardon the three surviving anarchists, basically saying this whole thing had been a travesty of justice, and indeed it had. As i said, we still dont know who threw the pipe bomb, we know it wasnt them. Nevertheless, the resulting fear of radicalism led to increasing anti labor sentiment nationwide. What id like to talk about another explosion, in 1892. 1892 was a period, we couldve taken any number of Major Incidents from 1892, to talk about, in new orleans there was a general strike that went on and on, involved 25,000 workers, dozens of different organizations, black workers and white workers in your ellens, there was a Major Incident in the coal mining fields of eastern illinois. Known as the cold creek war, starting in 1891 and going into 1892, in which tennessee minors protested against the use of convict labor, which was being used to undermine their wages, and they protested by arming themselves, burning the stock cases and blame comics for being held and released most of the prisoners. The militia came in and they ended up being defeated. But the one that im gonna choose to spend a little bit more time on, occurred in a place we already gotten a little bit, in this class. Homestead, pennsylvania. At Andrew Steele works. The Steel Workers there were trying to organize, they were trying to join a National Group known as the amalgamated iron Steel Workers. At one point in his career, andrew tornadic he had favored the principle of collective bargaining, but he was getting a bit too close to home now. And so he changed his mind. But he did not become a great innovator, and millionaire by being a fool. Until he quite prudently decided that this was not for him, and he left up to his number two, henry clay fake. He helped the line against the union. On july 1st, 1892, he declared that he would not negotiate with this union, they were not illegitimate, instead he fortified the steel plant. But this was not the end of the story. Their workers armed themselves, captured the plant, barricaded themselves inside. Now you have to talk to us. While free kept another move to make, he hired a group, a notorious group known as a pink or tank guards, they are politely referred to as a detective agency, but the real term was a mercenary group. And they came in, lumbering up the river, on their barge to fight, 300 of, them to fight these strikers. But it didnt quite work out. When they arrived a brawl into, one guard was, scaled a steel worker started firing on them. The people of homestead were on the side of the workers. This is our families, these are our customers, our neighbors. And so he chased him out of town, they couldnt flee by their barges because they burned their barges. So at the hay market affair, if you recall, local Law Enforcement had ultimately been effective in stock being the radicals. This could be the case this time, because it may, or the sheriff, were on the side of the workers. In fact, Public Opinion, by a large was on the side of the workers. But thats not the end of the story. Because in the meantime, and anarchist broke into the office, in pittsburgh, shot him twice, and repeatedly stabbed him. Workman, however, was one of the great failures in the assassination history. Not only did he failed to kill what frick he also undermined a strikers for whom he was professing thin busy. Because Public Opinion saw this outburst of radical violence as a discredit to the union movement. And while some people remain that there was enough shift that there was political cover for us to move up one level of government. If it wont be local, it can be the state. So the governor of pennsylvania had the state militia go in, the workers were extricate it from the plant, strike breakers were brought in, and there would be no successful long term unionization of american still workers until the 1930s. El paso three, two years later, coleman illinois. The context for this is the depression, that we talked about in the context of the farmers last time, that started in 1893. What that meant for one thing, is that in 1894 there was a lot of labor frustration. Almost 1400 strikes, a record breaking, 505,000 workers out on strike that year. In the other part of the context, is the place. Pullman, illinois. Its one of these Company Towns, and weve talked about Company Towns. And as Company Towns go, compared to the unheated shacks, wait a little water supply, that weve seen in mine country, or in the textile towns in new england. Pullman, was a relatively nice company town by all reports. The housing was a decent standard, there were libraries in parks, and playgrounds and schools. And mr. Pullman saw himself as sort of patriarchal figure, he referred to his workers at his children. But this ended up being a problem. In the town of pullman, what do they . Make they make pullman cars, sweeper cars. For trains. And so you work in his factory, you live in his town, where he owns everything, you shop in his stores, you pay rent to mr. Pullman. And all right, well it all seems fine, its a relatively decent standard of living, as gilded age standards of living for the working class go. But then came to depression. And mr. Pullman decided he needed to help the companys bottom line, but he called for a major weight cut for his workers. Up to 30 in some cases. But the rent was going to remain the same. Hes your boss, but hes also your landlord and so how are you going to argue this . One thing is the rent was already exorbitant because compared to similar rental properties in that region, he was charging about 15 to 20 more. Not only is he not lowering the cost, but hes also cutting their wages. He said this was for the good of the company. But consider this, they paid 2. 8 Million Dollars worth of dividends in 19 1884. They were supposed to be losing money. In fact, the dividends they pay that you were higher than the dividends they paid in the previous year. So while there was a real problem and production was indeed down, its not as though the company was on the verge of collapse. So the workers try to negotiate. They sent in a grievance committee. Mr. Pullman listen to what they had to say. He said thats interesting, you guys are fired. This offended the poll workers as you can imagine and it led to a strike. I walked out beginning may 11th. This wouldve been one of the thousandplus strikes of that year, except it got bigger because the workers at pullman were aligned with a National Group, the American Railway union. They had the support and sympathy of its president , eugene the depths. Deaths in the American Railway union called for secondary strikes. Our switch men, our Railroad Workers around the country will refused to switch any pullman car into a train. When you have 40,000 plus Railroad Workers saying this, it starts to get serious. By late june, Train Networks were being shut down around the country. They tried not to obstruct the mail, because they did not want to run afoul of the federal government. But management was quite smart in how they handled this. They said quite simply, if the train is not complete, meaning if you will not putting the pullman car, then we are not running it. Then they went to the federal government and explained it was the unionists were being obstructionists. So the federal government started to take notice at the action going on. In chicago at a market, who had dealt with this . It was local authority. This is obviously to begin scale to be handled by local authorities. At homestead, it had been the state. But in illinois, the governor is sympathetic to labor. So this time it was going to be federal intervention. The Justice Department went to court, they got an injunction against the strikers, but he strikes continued. So debs was arrested on july 10th for contempt of court. Meanwhile, the president had to act because the strikes continued. The president is still Grover Cleveland. We got to know him last time. The male is being disrupted, management is telling us it is the fault of the workers, George Pullman is a friend of mine by the way and dont forget that cleveland is like the other gilded age president s, pro business. Hes pro management. So they get the injunction based on two matters. Number one, they are interrupting federal delivery of mail. And number two, this is viewed by the courts and the Justice Department as an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. These fellows are in violation of the sherman antitrust act. So the injunction is granted, union does not back down and so we have to send in the army. Thousands of u. S. Soldiers. Fighting took place, dozens were killed, the Supreme Court lets try got broken up finally. The Supreme Court ruled that debs was wrong and the government was right, that they were violating the law and so this gives great power to those seeking injunctions from courts against labor in the future. And all of these cases, a lot of americans knew who was to blame. It was the workers, it was the radicals, but also it was groups that weve talked about in great depth a week ago. It was these outsiders, these newcomers, these immigrants. And so its not just that we can blame the immigrants in the city for undermining american democracy. Its not that we can just blame the immigrants for challenging american religious traditions with their college and their judaism. Were challenging American Culture standards with their salons and their beer halls. But also, when we ask who is to blame for crime and for anarchists and socialists, the answer, if you read this cartoon, is quite clear. Its the russian anarchists, the german socialists, the italian brigand, the polish vagabond, the irish proper and so forth and so on. So class and it in the city, not for the first time in american history, but certainly in an increasingly powerful extent were being conflated and intertwined and this was going to be very potent weaponry against both the foreigners and the labor activists for decades to come, as we will see. In the meantime though, i started out saying this wasnt all about the workplace. It wasnt all about the economy. Some of the discontent in the gilded age was social in nature. You can understand this when you work in a factory, you have no control. Right . No control over what your work schedule looks like. In the middle towns they literally ring bells to drag you out of the bed in the morning. They ring bells so you can wake up in the morning. They control your life. You dont set your schedule the way you did if they were a peasant backing your before you emigrated. Or you dont get to spend much time out of doors. You dont get a lot of time access to nature. You dont make your own schedule. You dont have any sense of craftsmanship in which you are doing. When you combine this in many cases with living in a very large city, where entire life, probably very fascinating, could be confined in a world of a few dozen blocks. Remember that world, as we read and as weve observed, could be a very dark dirty diseased world. Frustrating, stifling world. You start to understand why people will grow discontent with this arrangement. So there were certain solutions that were proposed. One response to this was a push for recreation. Reformers in the gilded age cities, and we will get to know them very well in future lectures, they believed that urban dwellers would benefit immensely from access to playgrounds and parks and beaches. Like the speech we see here being enjoyed by some of the immigrant textile workers that we met in previous lectures. So one response to the discontent, or at least the potential discontent of the cooped up urban dweller, was the rise of recreation and urban parks. It had been going on for many decades of course, they did not invent parks in the gilded age. The most famous probably of those parks, central park in new york, began construction in its modern form in the Henry Frederick law homestead form beginning in 1858, completed in 1873. One more and more parks would follow as the gilded age approached the 20th century, this push for outdoor breathing spaces for the urban masses would become even more vehement and while we have green spaces, we also need to make sure we are keeping everybody fit and acted. If they are physically active, that will keep them out of trouble on the one hand. And if they are physically fit, that will keep them morally fit. It will help them be wholesome. Help them avoid the salute potentially. So reformers in the city saw all sorts of means of keeping the masses from getting bored and lethargic and of encouraging them to stay healthy both physically and morally. You see some exercise class here. This in turn led to the increasing popularity of athletics. Sports were a way to bring order to people. To organize people not only into community organizations, but also to keep them fit in the same time and to develop the sense of pride in your group, in your churches team, in your unions team, the new york towns team. Or perhaps your schools team, which is very important then and now. This is a transnational phenomenon. I dont want to make you think that this is only american. Historians can tell you the same story about soccer clubs in britain and europe or cricket clubs and so forth, arising in the same period. But in our case, its very important as well. This is the time when baseball and its modern form starts to get organized and formalized in the years after the civil war. Basketball is invented by dr. James nays mid in 1891 at a ymca in springfield, massachusetts. We start to have College Football. The First CollegeFootball Game took place in 1869. Between princeton and our new arch rival in the 14, records. Rodgers won 64, for those of you who play trivia. That game, like our game, was violent, but there is was far worst. No helmets, plenty of unnecessary roughness, no notion of unnecessary roughness. The game came close to getting band a couple of times, but there was a president ial commission about the carnage taking place on the field. Carnage is the right word for it. It has been estimated by one historian that in one year the president in question held this commission, 1905, it is estimated there was as many as 45 deaths on College Football fields. One historian estimates that was in the five years leading up to the commission. In the year 1905 itself, it has been estimated that College Football games produced 18 deaths and 159 catastrophic injuries. And so we need to do something to organize this and make it less bloody and so they worked on that. It wasnt only the working classes who found modern society but now and sought outlets for their constraint energies either. The upper classes and intellectuals in the gilded age becameing increasingly disenchanted with the weightlessness up their society. Many of them suffered from an incredibly vague but increasingly popular disorder called nurse danya. It consisted of anxiety, fatigue, depression, stress, impotence, headaches. The diagnosis depended very heavily on who you were. If you were of the working class is and you are winding about these things, you are either lazy or insane and the solution was to you either start or be institutionalized. If you were a woman it was quite likely that you are simply hysterical and you needed to be locked up in his plane room as possible until they made you more hysterical. You read about this, for example, in Charlotte Perkins yellow wallpaper from 1892. But for a lot of people, male and female, these symptoms might mean you were suffering from nerve weakness. There was a neurologist named George Miller beard. He identified this disorder as a symptom of modern life. It was caused by this faster pace, this is a natural pace. Many things, but especially above all, it was caused by modern technology. Technology was not natural. It is degrading us in our biology. Beards solution was a regiment of electrical shocks. Happily, other positions called simply for bed rest or isolation. To a lot of intellectuals, if this burnout is a symptom of maternity, then our solution is to embrace anti modernism. So they wanted something more. Then the superficial consumerism. And to secularized drive for material gain, that seemed to mark their times. And so, many of them rejected modern society in favor of any number of more basic alternatives. A vague return to a simple life, a return to craftsmanship, working with your hands. Our return, in some cases, to medieval style religious devotion. Or a new term, to ancient religious practices of the far east. And a romanticization of all things, as they would have said at the time, oriental. And so they turned for alternatives, to their modern society, oftentimes in a bizarre way. But it gives you, nevertheless, insight into their frustration with the society. For many of them, including the president , that i need did not name but i was referred to in the football discussion, for many of them self exertion was the type of choice. Theodore roosevelt was a young, seek, lethal eat old money boy. And his solution to all of this was the vigorous life. Particularly, time spent in the great outdoors. And so, in his very famous attempt to reiterate himself and his class, Theodore Roosevelt would hike mountains, hunch big game, engage in cattle ranching, elite military units, and encourage his fellow white men to procreate as much as possible. These were some of his solutions to this vigorous life. Now these concerns, from neurotic elites, were confused overwhelmed intellectuals. They may seem trivial, when compared to the labor strife and the economic turmoil of the late 19th century, and indeed to a larger stand they are. But the point here, is that elites were just as interested in using central park, and other parks, for themselves, as they were in creating the park as an outlet to prevent discontent among the lower sorts. We see them enjoying central park here. The point, in other words, is that during the gilded age, there was disenchantment coming from all directions. From those who needed a break, from the monotony of industrial life. From those who feared the moral, or social implications of an increasingly restless working class. From businesses, who found themselves abused by monopolies, from states, who found themselves powerless to stop monopolies. From workers, who were constantly fighting themselves being crushed by monopolies, and other companies as well. And, also, from those near the top of the gilded age social social hierarchy, who found they are society increasingly vacuous, and unsatisfied. Were not done with the gilded age, yet we have been away from the south for sometime now. So next time, when we return, were going to turn our gaze back to dixie, and observe their peculiar version of a gilded age, have a wonderful weekend, turn your papers in. If you are haley student, put your paper here, if you are a dusty here, put your paper there. And, have a wonderful weekend. Up next, university of North Carolina and chapel hill professor molly where, than teaches a class about the 20th century fundamentalism, and she begins with a 1925 scope monkey trial, which pitted the teaching of evolution versus creationism in public schools, and gain national attention. Later, she talks about the origins and growth of pen to cost elysium, which strives for personal connection with the divine, and includes such aspects as faith healing, and speaking in tongues. All right, lets begin. My name is molly worthen, were at the university of North Carolina, chapel hail, in todays election is on a history of american fundamentalism and phinda cost elysium. Im gonna try to answer three big questions. Today. Number one, what is protestant