To enslave mankind. This was hitlers way to unify europe. Whichone massive race for the weak must slave and the young worry be exterminated. Democrats,cialist, area and or none area aryan, nonaryan, dutch, polish, scandinavian or anglosaxon, this was your end if you did not fit. This was a sore and the cleansing of that sewe, for which modern europe had to evolve. 1945, the war to end the tyranny was like all wars appallingly destructive. Then, as western and eastern Army Security shutter across defeated germany, the field radios crackled in russian, louder, louder until at last they met at the banks. There democracy from the west and covered his from the east hands. D and shook for now, our europe was once again a place fit to live in. Now it was up to us, to ourselves and our leaders, to make that europe not just a place to live in, but one to be proud of. So began the first of europes peacetime meetings to put the right. Ent to in western europe, where destruction have been comparatively light, life resumed some semblance of normality. There, regimentation had been accepted only for the duration. Now, regimentation was something to be done away with as soon as possible, in the gold oldfashioned way. I disagree with every word you say, but i defended to the death your right to say it. Elsewhere, however, much had gone forever was nothing to replace it. , a mereftermath existence where a damaged roof made a palace, a loaf of bread, a banquet. Degradation. The of selfish act end of selfrespect. A harkening back to the jungle. Here was only a number. Almost a political vacuum. Yet even amid all the appalling problems in the struggle for a vestige of normality, there were some good look ahead beyond the toediate, be on the roads, tangible, practical goals. At the conference at the hague, a united europe movement, symbolized by the letter e, gave expression to aspirations, hopes and possible leads. This is not a moment of parties, but a moment of people. It must be all for all. United by only be their wish and vehement expression of the great will guarantee of all the people, and all the parties, in all the freedom loving countries no matter where they dwell or how they vote. A united europe. The dream of charlemagne, and still a dream. Everywhere, the kremlin what immense, the suspicion crumbling monuments of suspicion, jealousy and despair. With drivingled dragon teeth. Sometimes it was like the r ane, a natural barrier, invisible line across streets, an invisible line, and an attitude of mind. How could these europeans be united . Here was the blood of many races, nationalities, each with its own tradition and ways of life, not to mention different tongues. As neighbors, they had seemingly little in common, and now they had not only little in common, but little enough anyway. All very well for Winston Churchill to make speeches on unity in 1947. He had selfrespect, enough to eat and a place in which to live. Unity was well done on the list of priorities down on the list of priorities. The United Nations, where delegates from east and west had died together, even they were cynical. Though they talked of a settled world, they were talking of neither the same thing nor the same means of achieving it. Now, there was a new power in the world, that of the soviet union, taste on moscow based upon moscow. After 20 years of communism and the battle against hitlers right germany, russia was emerging onto the road stage, employing you and disconcerting employing new and disconcerting techniques. On the ideas of men, among them marks and the london. But when ideas must be imposed, for those who cherish freedom, even the ideas themselves become suspect. In recent years, the soviets had chosen to erase from the records at monument of carbon is an, the name of stalin. But until his death in 1953, soviet policy was made by stalin and dictated by him. The annexation of the baltic states, the huge advances of the had placed vast areas of Eastern Europe under soviet control. There, in countries such as poland, stalin, in signing the east treaties, had promised his allies to hold free elections. It a virtual political vacuum, with no other party, with no other organization , they had the full support of the occupying red army, and air pressure was relentless. Pressure him there pressure washeir relentless. That a, to complete the aim was to complete the peacemaking and to solve the problem of a divided germany. Smiles, flowers. Very glad to be back in moscow again. We shall spend the days ahead of sound peace which tensionvent any future and let the whole world live in security. In her new role as a sophisticated western power, russia laid out all facilities. The world must know that this was to begin at take, it hammered out give and take, a hammering out. No difficulties abounded for the. Iplomats of the west americas mr. Marshall talked long enough. Surely, the answers must come. , representative on and slowly did he realize that there were not going to be any answers. Representative, only at long last did he come to see that his dream of a sound peace in europe was to be blocked by russias stonewalling. Meanwhile, soviet russia continues. Greece was not occupied by the red army, yet the communists were Strong Enough to stage a war, a desperate struggle in which the government on the gets control with help from the outside. Already, orimpoverished people warimpoverished people were pushed to the limits of hunger and despair. Looking to the slums of europe, one was forced to realize that the real problems stemmed not only from the ravages of war, or political strife, but also from countries. Ed to save europe from the nazis, millions had died. Save our europe still plagued by malaria, tuberculosis , and every other disease that comes with bad housing and let attrition, to save our europe much of it, not fit, is this what they had died for in , inandy, at allemagne stalingrad, in the streets of italy and paris . Was this the aftermath they had envisaged . What heritage . What europe . In washington, George Marshall made known the principles of the plan that was to bear his name the situation is critical. But there is no doubt whatever in my mind that if we decide to do this thing, we can do it successfully. A plan whereby europe could help itself by using american dollars as a catalyst between its own seriously degraded currency. In europe, the response was immediate. Statesmen met to examine the plan, among them russias mr. Molotov. But when mr. Molotov became aware of the vast scope of the plan, out he stormed. Moscow, mr. Molotovs attitude was fully supportive. Though powerful was still too warravaged to give help itself. Only one country, the United States had the available resources. This team was a generous, heartfelt response to crying human need, and in europe, it was welcomed as such. But for the soviets, the creed was revolution first, rehabilitation afterwards. , if people were starving it was the fault of capitalism. Turn to communism, and communism would provide the answer. But it western europe, the answer was yes. Later,ns a few months britain the program. Last year, mr. Marshall give. Ur government in new stimulus we in europe repaired a statement of our pledges and our needs. The United States government and Congress Responded to these needs and passed with generous legislation designed to meet them. Inhave now put up pledges the solemn obligation, and have devised an organization to help, not only to administer american aid, but also to bring about a permanent, sound european economy. The organization for European Economic cooperation. Instance,eement, for holland could import threequarters of the cotton needed to keep her textile looms in production. Britain could receive the carbon black she needed to make the tires for her vital automobile industry. Then there was other equipment for countries such as turkey, to be your agriculture interline with a lot of their more fortunate neighbors. So the car goes began to move across the atlantic. Food, raw materials. It wasnt only a matter of feeding the hungry or a temporary handout. From chicago, illinois to france, a giant of steel production, not only to put french males back on their feet, but also to make them french feet, but on your also to make them more modern. Then, with marshall aid funds and technical assistance, monasteries of italy, whole islands such as sardinia and cyprus became battlegrounds in the fight against the malarial mosquito. Everywhere, health teams went to grapple with the scourge of centuries. In new hope for europe was read in the eyes of children. Opposition, however, did not view it that way. They claimed that the Marshall Plan was but a scheme to get control of europe and sever the necks of capitalists. Communismlized that would lose its first emotional appeal to the hungry. Now, time was no longer on his side. It was in czechoslovakia. The funder of the state, back in 1919, had been a veteran. , carried on yann his fathers democratic tradition in collaboration with president benic. The intensely active Czech Communist Party naturally did their best to swing their country charger policy toward the soviet union. With their numbers went before and minister to moscow to discuss his countrys acceptance of marshall aid, only to receive a most emphatic, no. And russia was too powerful a across. In prague itself, the pressure mounted further. At first the conditions had treated the president with the respect he deserved as head of state. But he was held to be too prowestern. Drastic measures were called for. By a coup detat, the communist party took control of the czechoslovakian state. The new leaders made their debut in parliament. The president was forced to died, and soon brokenhearted, in virtual exile. As they were rejoicing their first day in power, the new leaders took their time off to stand in silence, to pay homage to an absent member of the house. Yann, now lay in state after a fall from his window. By accident, suicide, or murder, nobody then knew. This was europe after but a few short years of peace. A democratic western state, czechoslovakia had gone behind the iron curtain. Could any state now consider itself safe . So, alarmed by the general situation, statesmen of western europe had come together to face facts. With memories on the too close to that other field of crisis. Only five nations signed the treaty. But as a peacetime commitment to resist further encroachment, it was an historic step. Warriors toested france, for meeting force with force. But where was the force . At the end of the war, the western allies had rapidly demobilized. Soviet russia had maintained its forces, practically on a war footing. The power of the red army was formidable indeed. Tension,point of berlin. The whole of germany and the city of berlin, had after the war been divided into 4 zones of occupation, british, french, american, and russian. But the soviets soon established, without the consent of their allies, a separate east german state, claiming berlin as its capital. Russianrnment and its sponsors didnt want the part of the city they occupied, they wanted all of it, without waiting for the peace treaty. In august, barely five months after the coup detat in prague, the russians unilaterally decided to isolate western berlin and cut its supply routes which crossed the soviet zone in germany trains, barges, and road traffic were stop. The alternative was for the west to leave berlin ignominiously or stare and allow the people in the british, french, and american sectors to starve. Above. Y way in, the sky was it conceivable that so large a cd could be supplied by air . The west were responsible for almost 2. 5 million people. Thiso supply a city of size would mean mounting the biggest airlift of all time, bigger even than anything achieved during the war. The three and governments of the west decided to try. By so doing, they were taking a calculated risk, for if anyone playing had been found, we would almost certainly had been at war again. From bases in england, france, and the american side of germany, the first planes began to arrive. Stalin remained confident. He assumed that within a matter of weeks, and certainly, when winter came, the west would abandon the attempt. His optimism was not unfounded. Fog made flying increasingly dangerous. 36 allied planes were lost. Shortage of fuel brought berlin to a standstill. But there was no stopping now. Week after week, in the winter 49, they flew into the city. By april of 19 footing nine, it had reached a staggering total of 12,000 pounds a day. The life in western berlin was literally maintained by air. Soviet pressure, the security of the west was established. The policy of Standing Firm was vindicated. Was this peacewas this what they had died for in normandy, alamein, stalingrad, the heels of italy and the streets of paris . Of italy and the streets of paris . So, in 1949, 12 nations came together to sign the north atlantic treaty. Thus was born the Atlantic Alliance and n. A. T. O. , its organization for the defense of the west. The beginning of a true system of collective security. Realizing that the treaty brought the United States firmly onto the european scene for the first time in peacetime, the commonests reacted to say communists reacted to say the least unfavorably. Western europe took this move towards offensive rearmament very soberly. And in spite of commonest threats and propaganda, n. A. T. O. s first supreme commander, dwight d. Eisenhower, arrived in paris to take his post. A planned demonstration came to naught. In a temporary headquarters, the military staff of the Alliance Began their task of building the continents soldiers of many nations, working together in peace time, because those nations realized that to avert war, the safest thing was to be prepared for it. Sportso europes came the first weapons to restore the military balance. Along with them, soldiers from across the atlantic, from canada and the United States, here at this time to prevent the governments from falling. Airfieldshe mushrooming on the landscape there was much growing on the side, of the nations receiving marshall aid dollars were putting their own currency to good work. Railways, hydroelectric, everywhere, the rattle of chains and concrete. In the factories, there was ever growing roar and bustle. N. A. T. O. Was the shield. Rhineland city of bonn, workers put finishing touches on a new parliament. To block german reunification, the russians had created an east german state. The west would create a western one. Of new administration included many veteran fighters for german freedom. For those of them who had suffered for their beliefs in nazi concentration camps to be members of the first democratic government in their country for over 20 years was reward indeed. Here was the beginning of a new germany. Facts, the fact that several million industrious people, deprived for so long of democratic processes, could not continue without a government of their own choice. Oath, the chancellor of the new west german state. [speaking in foreign language] then, in 1953, Joseph Stalin died. The shocks are the communist world was profound. The shock throughout the communist world was profound. Perhaps he had been there so long that the world could never be the same without him. And this was to prove truer than most of them emergent. Now in moscow, there was not just one face, but many. For those in the west who were not experienced students of russian politics, it was hard to discern who if any help the real reins of power, enough to say that which way it would go was anyones guess. General policy was unchanged. At a summit Conference Held in geneva to try it again to settle the problems that had divided germany, the results were once again frustration. Faces from the east and west made smile for the cameras, but in truth, this was merely putting a good face on failure. The though unity between two house of germany might be a was onceoff, the rhine again a true thoroughfare of europe, europe making its first steps toward unity. A council strasbourg, of europe was meeting regularly, and at its conferences many european nations, n. A. T. O. Members and others discussed their continents future. The council had no executive and its members could only advise the governments of the general trend of its thinking. A good start, but no solution. Fact, the solutions were easier than anyone imagined. Time did not wait for a political solution. It was the needs of trade and Higher Standards of living that began to destroy the wall. It started with iron and aine hadnce the lorr been the crucible of war. 1917,hen came the of 1940, than in one step and one agreement, all were brought into the European Community of coal and steel. The dream of frances foreign minister, schumann, brought into reality. In 1952, in the city of luxembourg, the Community Set up its headquarters. There, six western european steals living in loal and cooperated to prevent andlapping, wasteful prices. A phrase the world was to hear more of. Their reasons were purely economic, yet by this one act, a handful of practical men had done more for european unity than all of blood and force of centuries. Meanwhile at nato headquarters in paris, equally significant moves have been made. By general agreement of all the nato nations, the federal republic of germany had been invited to sign the north atlantic treaty and thus become their 15th ally. A 1955, this seemed merely logical step. But in hindsight it was a milestone of history. Henceforth in the streets of western german cities, there were still to be seen men and women in alien uniform. But now, they were there not as occupiers in the defeated state, but as allies to help safeguard the peace. Nato,ern germany, within made defense along the iron curtain a practical proposition. Growing western strength, the old fears of infiltration and intimidation by the east, were fast waiting period now, were quickly waning. Now millions whose continence had given so much to the world were free to get on with vanishing needs and wants. To get on with the real business of life. East wasuld seem the faced with a civil choice. War, or talkworld across the conference table. The first 10 years of the post war world. You remember when harry lime sidled across viennas tractor to turn the scarcities of a warravaged city to his own profit . The end is no longer that kind of city. All it evokes that old vienna is a physical memory. Europe, a harry lime would find meager scope. For now in that prosperous and bustling continent, profiteering in vital necessities is not so easy. Rome, thenna, paris, Marshall Plan is so much a thing of the past that few can even recall it. How long ago was yesterday . Stalin,it, like joseph seems to be so far back as to be as dim as antiquity. The immediate yesterday, however, is still so close, that to be reminded of it comes as a kind of shock. , march 1957. A treaty signed by the six nations of the proneness deal community, henceforth it was to be the European Economic community. Or otherwise the common market. Warm,common market, like is not built in a day. Like roma, is not built in a day. Even now for ordinary people to understand carrots is are less aware than they might be of the improving economic picture. Admit things are far better than they were. Memories of the immediate yesterday on the political seem, in london, that city as conservative as only the city of london can be. And who were the lord mayors guests of honor in the spring of 1956 . The state visitors from the soviet union were affectionately called mr. B and mr. K. Or the bulge and the crash. Mr. B, conrad bugatti. And mr. K, cindy proved the real power, conrad khrushchev. Faces smiled in keeping with the new policy terms, peaceful coexistence. The smiles lay a reality to graham for smiles. Across germanys former curtain iron in fact as well as name, though leaders might sport in foreign capitals, for their people, peaceful coexistence was no more than a theory. November, 1956. But a pest strewn with wreckage and corpses. Arising by hungarians seeking minimal freedoms had been met by the argument of tanks and guns. May, 1960. Mr. Khrushchev is to bring to anotheronference yet summit meeting is disintegrated because of soviet stonewalling. Unwilling to continue discussions with the west, mr. Kirsch of is nonetheless keen to have an audience. Khrushchev. The press likes mr. Krisha. Khrushchev and he likes them. Theafter the applause comes row. What was the use of cooperating over the conference table went american planes were spying over the soviet union . Wreckage of the u2, its special gear at its pilot. Xplain that, says kruschev [speaking foreign language] the u2 has given mr. Khrushchev the excuse to and the summit meeting that is embarrassing him, and to take his leave. ,he next scene, new york september, 19 succeed two. The United Nations general assembly. 19 succeed two. These were the days when the normally staid average deste gathering was to be enlivened by comrade kruschev. Because neither russia nor the u. S. Would yield to a reorganization favoring the summit union. The yuan special general, doc commerce or sold was single out for the u. N. Secretarygeneral, dog hammarskjold was separate out single out forests and special treatment. Dag. Like the charge of a light brigade, magnificent but is it diplomacy. For millions of outoftown visitors to new york, the United Nations building is but a tiny part of a great spectacle of manhattan. Here amid all the symbols of wealth and power, Foreign Affairs are apt to seem as distant as though viewed through the wrong end of a telescope. , subject to nons real set of foreign invasions since the war of independence, imagine than the shock of the events of 19 succeed you. 1962. In the white house, president kennedy discusses with soviet foreign minister mr. Amico. The United States is faced with what seems to be inevitable nuclear warfare. Gromyko. Why this nightmare . And who is response . Bearded uniform figures tried for days to deliver one of its long harangues against United States. In this there is nothing particularly new in the form or the longwinded nest. This is fidel castro of cuba. That American Photo reconnaissance planes flying over cuba have supplied evidence of a series of rocket sites armed with soviet weapons capable of subjecting the very heartland of the United States to close range attacks. An anxious United NationsSecurity Council listens to the United States representative, mr. Adlai stevenson. We down another that the soviet union, not content with dr. Castros oath of field. Not reese not content with cuban independence, has decided to transfer him cuba into a base for communist aggressions into a base for all of the americans under the nuclear gun. John kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev had once met in vienna. Their meeting established a hotline. Now, when every minute counted over that hotline, president kennedy gave the choice. Not long afterwards reconnaissance planes were able to report that ships sailing out of cuba were carrying depth cargoes of rockets being returned to the soviet union. Power thatalance of had been deliberately and dangerously tilted, was thus restored, thanks to the firmness of the american president. That since the cuban crisis, the good citizens of the United States have read the four papers with just a shade more attention . What can be said is there now fully aware that the emphasis has swung away from the old applicable chessboard of europe and onto the twin amasses of themselves and the peoples of the soviet union. These days there are psy skyscrapersmoscow, and a drink dispensers and prepackaging added telephones and televisions in moscow, the big store is called,. But inside it is much like any other department start. Gum. Can this new consumer demand mean that in russia today materialism is infiltrating with decadent influence . In his tomb and red square, london and red square, lennon allies alone. Stalin had been removed. Lies alone. As the russian will tell you it is not personalities that count the policy. Now the streets of moscow, people seem to have their eyes fixed on more distant targets. On the heavens. On the way to the stars. Stars lies to the also through the brandenburg gate. Berlin, bricks, mortar, wire and every kind of finish contraction fiendish contraption make up the wall of shame. With an uneasy status quo, americans, british and french whiletill patrol the they detest. On the other, each German Police work to make their defenses even more impregnable. It is designed not to keep out but to keep in. Witness the memorials to those who have tried to pass and failed. On the side of the wall, Children Play against its stones. As they will play anywhere. When khrushchev was retired 20 years after the second world war, the young people of europe inherited a divided berlin, a divided germany. And no final postwar settlement of the european problem. In the early 1960s, the means by which it was hoped such a settlement might be reached is called peaceful coexistence, a phrase used by the east. In the late 1960s, the west produced a single word, detente, to describe the policy. Natos policy. Of attempting by every possible political and diplomatic means, to bridge the gaps between east and west and by so doing, to solve all of the problems that beset europe. This film stops were dead because what happened after 1965 is not yet history this film stops where it did because what happened after 1955 is not yet history but part of where we live, europe of new ideas. With young people who never knew the hopes and disappoint in some those 20 years. Those two decades which future historians may well come to regard as a turning point in world history. Watchcer you can archival films on Public Affairs in their entirety on our weekly series, railamerica. America. Saturday and sunday here on American History tv. Cspan studentcam 2020 competition is in full swing. Across the country middle and haeckel students are hard at work, creating their short documentaries on the issues they most would like the 2020 present on candidates to address in their campaigns. We would love to see your progress. Take us behind the scenes and share your photos, using the dentcam2020. Still working on an idea . We have resources on the website. Our Getting Started page on studentcam. Org has information to guide you through the process of making a documentary. Cspan will award 100,000 in total cash prizes including a 5,000 grand prize. Eligible entries must be received by midnight on generate 20th, 2020. The best device i can give to young so makers is not to be afraid to take your issues seriously. Youre never too young to have an opinion so let your voice be heard now. Which wereformation, website, studentcam. Org. January 20, 2020. Announcer this week on American History tv, we look back to the nixon impeachment in 1973 and 74. Former representatives trent lott and Lisbeth Holtzman reflect on their time on the house to share committee, when they considered articles of impeachment against president nixon. Preview of thea interviews from the Richard Nixon president ial library. I want to step back for a moment. We are going to see there will be kids who watch this, students who watch this when he five years from now. Please compare and contrast the constitutional crises of the clinton one versus nixon. Are they both in the same seriousness . Gosh. No. I voted for articles of impeachment of clinton and i would have voted for the one on nixon. I do think that there was more of a constitutional crisis with nexen. With nexen then there was with clinton. Nixon. H maybe it was the times. Maybe it was the breakin and the illegal aspects of it. Maybe it was what the tapes revealed in terms of his. Iscussions and the effort to cover it up. And several of ways. I voted whatthat, i thought was the right thing with clinton. Two focus on the articles of impeachment. I mean, most people if you lied to a grand jury, that is a crime. People have been removed from the federal courts for lying to a grand jury about a crime that you were found innocent of. I felt like he did not tell the truth there. I think the differences were, though, to a degree, i do not know why we differentiate these. One was about human relationships, sex if you will. Breaking one was about the law, in terms of Something Like a serious obstruction of justice. I think the nixon matter and the timing, the vietnam war, all oft had gone on, was a part the atmosphere we were still dealing with. Was rodinos insight and wisdom that led him to understand that this could never be seen by the American People as an effort by democrats to railroad a republican president. Otherwise it would never, impeachment would never happen. Andi think rodino ultimately the other members of the committee realized that most of the other members of the committee realized, certainly the democrats realized that what was at stake here was put during the constitution. So we had to bend over backwards. Even if we didnt like it, to do the right thing. Even if we wanted to move more quickly. Even if he wanted to have a democratic counsel. And if we wanted something else. If we were going to succeed, if youre going to bring the country with us, the only way it could be successful would be if the country thought this was totally fair and totally honorable. And not a partisan hatchet job designed to remove, by democrats in congress, designed to remove a pub president. Remember Richard Nixon had been elected in one of the biggest landslides in American History just 11 months before. And here, the marking people of turned around and said, we cannot allow a president to stop a criminal investigation. This is unacceptable in this country. The rule of law is more important. So we had to proceed in that spirit. And some of us were impatient. Brandnew member of congress, i was not a longstanding local figure. For me, i was champing at the bit for us to move forward and to move more quickly. But i think rodino, who was older and had really, in the end, excellent judgment, certainly understood this. Really wanted to do it in the right way. I think that notion of doing it in the right way, and doing it in a way that was not only fair but was perceived to be fair, is one of the reasons impeachment succeeded. President nixon was given the right to have counsel, to make his own point of view heard, to question witnesses. In the end, nobody questions the fairness of the proceedings because rodino took that off the table, by making it quite clear that the proceedings would be so fair that nobody could ask those questions. Announcer hear more from trent lott and Lisbeth Holtzman sunday at six clock p. M. Antenna clock p. M. Eastern here on American History tv. And 10 00 eastern. Announcer the National Museum of africanAmerican History and culture recently released a book called we return fighting, world war i and the shaping of modern black identity. The museum has a temporary exhibit focusing on African Americans during the war. Next, easy and creator and book contributor Krewasky Salter joined Howard University professor greg carr to talk about the collection of essays that inspired the book and exhibit. The two also discussed how the African American experience during what was then called the great war served as a catalyst for the civil rights movement. [applause] good evening. Good evening. First of all, thank you for coming out on this rainy evening. I know it is a challenge. I think it will be well worth your time to be here this evening for this discussion. It is my pleasure to welcome you to this program