Joint effort from private Companies Like General Electric and the lockheed corporation. Next is a documentary that tells the story of the creation of the program, telling how the satellite was built and the challenges the designers faced. This project mark the First Successful recovery of film from space. From the recovery to the 1972, the project photographed more than 750 square miles of soviet territory. [captioning performed by national captioning institute] [applause] good morning, ladies and gentlemen. For a moment, lets think back will point in time. October 24, 1957, to be precise. On that board the board of consultant activities submitted onk to president eisenhower the status of the Intelligence Communitys collection capabilities. And at the strong urging from , they called for a reassessment of the satellite reconnaissance system put into development by the air force. A complicated system based on electrical transmission of images from space. The 12 oxcartme Reconnaissance Aircraft was given a careful evaluation. The board held that while both were promising programs, the critical need for intelligence warrantedint in time an interim photo reconnaissance system that could get into operation earlier. This is a significant decision for the era. Just days before the soviet sputnik oneunched into range. The United States was over three months away from launching its first small satellite. The socalled missile lagged debate was already underway as the senate prepared the subcommittee to hold hearings on the issue. Respondedhouse rapidly to the recommendation. Dr. James killian, who had just assumed his new position as assistant to the president in science and technology arranged the meeting for the first week of december. Dulles andmr. Allen the deputy secretary of defense. At this meeting, eight weeks after sputnik one, the president decided to proceed with a joint air force photo reconnaissance row gram to answer the critical intelligence questions about intelligence missiles. Onthe system was to be based recovery from the vehicle, this marked the first of the remarkable corona project. The full import of the decision we be comprehended only if recall the primitive nature of our understanding of Space Technology and the critical need for hard intelligence information that existed at that point in time. Of 1957, the u2 had already spend a year over germany. It had never been intended to be operational for more than a year or two. The operational Life Expectancy was based on the likelihood that the soviets would in some months track it successfully and with accurate eta in hand being pressure to discontinue the flight. Misjudgedut we had the capabilities at the time. Their radar could track every flight. The soviets filed a protest. After that, over flights were flown only sporadically. Went overyears big u2 the rest of the world. Bed wentnt to around the rest of the world. Then we built corona, the worlds first photo reconnaissance satellite. Todays perspective, it is momentous. ,n the weeks after sputnik there was pressure from all quarters to accelerate the u. S. Missile and Space Program. There was much public debate about the military versus civilian control of the program. Suspectedme it was the president eisenhower would address the nation. Longrange Ballistic Missiles do not cancel these destructive and deterrent powers in our Strategic Air force. Earthunching of satellites is an achievement of the first importance. The scientists who brought it about deserve full credit and recognition. News useful new facts have been introduced with more on the way as new satellites with added instruments are launched. The satellites by themselves have no direct effect upon the nations security. However, there is real military significance to these launchings , as i have previously mentioned publicly. Their current military significance lies in the a danced technique and military technologies. Example, the powerful propulsion equipment necessarily used. Of february, 19 58, the president Gave Authority to all space projects under the newly formed advanced Research Projects agency. Off corona from the weapons system 117, the airport satellite program, was accomplished just 20 days later. At about the time that the cia headquarters was being built, project corona had begun. Thought of the beginning. Offering the best prospects for early success. It was placed under joint cia air force management. An approach that had been highly successful in developing and operating the u2s. The Development Project staff was formed under the direction of richard bushel. The special assistant director to plans and development. Wasair force counterpart Brigadier General rippling. He had served under. Gay he had given me clearance trucks and thats what the situation was about. He had done considerable homework in washington. Maybe you had better take it . Came aboard what kennedy called corona. It was even more informal and is organized. This time it was the land but it had been decided at the highest level that it would be managed like the u2. He appeared in my office to say , thatt had been taken program would be moving over to me. I didnt know what shifting it meant. He told me that it was a part of the 117 program in the air force. It was to be managed in the same way as the u2. Of course, he didnt answer any of my questions. Nothing about the duties of the organizations or what they were doing. The initial problem in the , the authority problem, was very different. It was already widely known at the time, from the study of the command at the air force, that the interim preliminary programs would not involve readouts but were fairly readily available in runningware and speed, the u. S. Half. Filma essentially produced that was recovered. The subject that you and i have addressed in our first meeting. As you have said, at about this time arc came into it existence. It seems to me that a decision was made at the white house on funding. That it would be the cia doing the funding. How it turned out for the first year of the program. Great advantage. Corona got underway in march of 1958 after a threeday conference. Among the cia, air force Ballistic Missile division, lockheed, General Electric, and fairchild. The meeting brought out that while the plans for the design were underway, it was far from complete. Major complications arose over the basic design of the camera. There was quite a lot to be decided. The program is going to use the stabilized camera on fairchild, which had no problem within the agency. The decisions that you and i made in the plans were proposed and required vehicle stabilization. Revolutionary because it was a success. A relatively new Optical Sciences firm formed by a group of scientists from the University Research center in boston. Hightech concepts propose a longer focal length lens for the camera and scanning with a stabilizer. The decision for this design was agonizing. Him relatively simple method of stabilization moving to one that was untried and technically more complicated. Lowervantages would be costs and much greater definition of intelligence targets. Takes aanoramic camera picture by rotating a lens through an angle, like this. In this model we just took the picture. Through a large angle. Camera, the lens after taking these panoramic pictures would rotate back into position for the next picture like this. Now, the trouble with that kind of action is that the high torque generated by the lens rotating in the two directions requires that they put a counterbalancing mechanism in so that the action will not vibrate or shake the entire platform. The electrical and mechanical complexity of counterbalancing the high torque reduce the reliability of the early model. The second version of the camera, the socalled j version is one in which we learned to separate the light part of the lens, the upper part of the lens from the heavy part of the lens. We would rotate the lens across. The way that the early camera did. Of the picture taking cycle, the heavy part of the lens would keep on moving. The light part would come back, not generating much disturbance. The heavy part would then be mechanically connected to it and synchronize with another picture taken. The 16th of april, 19 58, the final project proposal, including the high design, was staffto the president s secretary for review and approval. The proposal was promptly approved, although never invited into the strict security rules surrounding the program. Work on the approved plan continued immediately. Camera optics for optimal, using new computer graphic techniques. The hightech lens was a 24 inch focal length design. Were laters developed into at 35 c. Although relatively conventional, these were far from ordinary. At the time the corona lenses were made, they could influence quality over any that were previously made. Lens flags were taken from the finest available glass and , checked andion amounted to bring out the highest performance known to opt to call science. Optical science. The corona payload was a hybrid made up of mediumrange Ballistic Missiles and the second stage bell laboratories developed engine modified by lockheed. It is important to remember that , todaysoint in time commonplace reliability of systems was unknown. The vehicle consists of a forward section that encompasses the camera and the recovery system. Behind that, and electronics area that contains the sensor and the electronic power system and so forth. Finally on the back, the engine. The contractor chosen for the system was lockheed, which also contractor. E prime lockheed had a for integrating the payload, operating the launch preparation facility, and managing the subcontract. It was more than a means for placing the camera. The plan recovery sequence required a series of controlled maneuvers, any one of which was critical or the mission would fail. However, their most unique feature was the payload recovery system. History would show that the crucial decade of the 1960s intelligence scene could not have been served by the state of readout technology at the time. Actual recovery from space was necessary. Mannedld be noted that and unmanned u. S. Space recovery preventedere considerably by the Pioneering Technology developed for corona. The subcontractor was the General Electric company. The model of the front end right here, you see how it comes first, getting us out of orbit. The bodies were connected. When it went into its downward attitude, we were able to eject it out of orbit. Once we got into the return here wasy, the thrust ejected. This allowed the parachute to come out of the parachute cover. The parachute was allowed to unfurl and it lifted the capsule out. This is the capsule. With the heat shield happened after reentry. It was thrown away after it did its job. This was the capsule that we were after. Coronamission of the necessitated a low earth orbit to the north or south. However, the launch site must be one that prevented danger in highly populated areas. The lot the highly logical choice was the squadron already in place, the cook air force base renamed in october of 1958. Priorities,ghest the preparations for the test launch was completed. Firing the separations system. The second one. At the time we thought it had achieved orbit. Probably didnt make it. Last place was skeptical. It was the same token. Meanwhile the uncertainties about soviet missile capabilities mounted. Vice president nixon faceoff in what was known as the kitchen debate. There are some instances where you may be ahead of us. For example, in the development of the thrust of your rockets for the investigation of outer space. There may be some instances, however, where we are ahead of you. The third one launched a biomedical capsule in 1959 and achieved orbit. Due to an incorrect setting of a timing device, it was ejected over the north pole and came down in the snow near norway. The capsule was never recovered by a u. S. Team. A few years later a movie called ice station zebra offered speculation on the event. Problem after problem plagued the early launch. These were truly the days of space pioneers, where the solutions to last months failures only served four ideas for new problems with optimized solutions. However, the gravity of these events was nothing like at home. A prime example was the solution to the security requirements for the on pad payload cover. The design was eventually completed, but the interim solution came from pingpong balls, brown paper, and pml wire. Was then ahicle highspeed sports car, coming down range on the fit on the freeway. They avoided a speeding ticket for the test engineer. This design was phased out after one flight. Meanwhile, concerned about intelligence and the missile posture grew. It became a major item of debate in 1959. Of concern is a remark made by mr. Mcelroy about one month ago. He said that if the russians to collect missiles they were capable of, and if we build all the missiles we are planning to build, obviously the soviet enjoywill just it will an advantage. I would go under the assumption that they would hold all they can. That there think president , however expert he may be, has come to the wrong conclusion on the needs of defense. The Central Intelligence agencies estimate for 1969 contained footnotes by the army and air force intelligence agencies taking issue with the cia estimates of soviet missile strength. Discrepancies emphasize the need for heart intelligence. The u2 had improved the knowledge of the soviet union. But the critical questions went unanswered. Begin off for. 1960,the 10th of august, the diagnostic flight 13 was ready for launch. Orbital stage remains ready. At the time it was launched, there were a number of major problems waiting to be solved. Achieving accessible orbit. Operating the camera. And the allimportant recovery of the payload cells. Only. Will be by function on my mark . T minus five seconds. Mark. Telemetry quickly revealed that the 13 achieved orbit and that the initial positioning was correct. On the 17th orbit, the recovery package retro fired and descended normally, missiles missing impact points by 13 miles. Although beyond the range of the recovery aircraft, 13 capsules slashed down to near enough for a water recovery. Ever, manrst time orbited an object in space and recovered it according to plan. The capsule carried no film, but it did include the ability to beat the russians in their sputnik dog carrying capsule by nine days. In this, corona had paved the way through its backup technology for a splashdown recovery of the manned mission. President eisenhower probably proclaimed discovery 13 the first returning space voyager. History would show that much of the credit for the success was due to a new cold gas technique applied first to discover 13. Just eight days after this first success, discoverer 14 was launched. It carried a 20 pound payload. The satellite was on the verge of crumbling in the orbit. It finally stabilized by expending precious gas. Air force c 19s diploid in the attempts of catching the capsule and the secret space drama began. The satellite recovery vehicle was rejected ejected. This time the castle deployed into the ballpark. Squadronfrom the test raced to the proper coordinates. Capsulehe third try the was snatched up by pelican nine. Although the initial photography was substantially lower in resolution, it was of intelligence value. This one mission yielded more photographic areas of coverage than the total of all the missions over the soviet union. More importantly, the mission covered areas never previously reached. A new age of intelligence had begun. Meanwhile, the soviet Party Chairman visited the United States. Note, as heng side journeyed from San Francisco to los angeles by train, it took him through a part of the air force base within miles of the corona launch complex. While the chairman was sightseeing, still another launch was being readied. In the practice of the time, the countdown was halted to prevent unauthorized viewing. Launches were made during the window between trains. While khrushchev pounded the table at the united nations, our interpreters were busy evaluating the substance behind his boast. Today we hear a great deal about the soviet nine and 11 icbms. We know a great deal about these weapons. In fact enough to make these models. But much earlier in the 1950s our situation was very different indeed. In that year the efforts became involved in the analysis of soviet weapons systems. Also three major things occurred. First, we obtain photography of the soviet missile Test Facilities and learned the extent of that program. Settle secondly, mr. Khrushchev announced that they had achieved intercontinental Ballistic Missile capabilities. Most problematic was the beginning of the space era. Well before corona, soviets put into orbit sputnik one. Sputnik one was a dramatic illustration that the soviets possessed the capability to launch a weapon against the United States. But the main question was whether such weapons were being deployed. We could not provide an answer to the question, leading rather directly to the famous missile gap debates that occurred during the president ial campaigns of 1960. In that same year corona was successfully recovered. The film was brought back to the United States. We could begin begin to provide answers. 1960s wedle of the were confident that we could track the numbers of all types in the soviet union. This information made it possible for us to start to consider strategic arms talks with the soviet union. Because of the high confidence, we knew the exact number of successfully completed. On the 13th of december, 1960, 15 was turned along. Although 15 apparently worked properly, it reentered at the wrong attitude, causing it to fall outside the recovery zone. It sank before the recovery ship could reach it. When 16 in october failed to achieve orbit. 17 was then launched in november of 1960. It seemed to be a near perfect mission, except for one problem. The film broke before any photographs were exposed. Then, on the 10th of december, success came again. Discoverer 18 returned 39 pounds of film, proving the effectiveness of an improved camera effective nature with a more powerful vehicle. Technology was slowly emerging to correct each fault as it appeared. For example, mysterious apparitions began appearing on the film from time to time. Scientists soon established that it was a build up of static electric charge, coincidentally called corona. In a space environment the cause was not known until it was accidentally duplicated in a series of tests. Culprit turned out to be the formulation used in robert park, once identified it to be reformulated to identify the problem. Earlier, far more serious film problems hit the eastern kodak researchers, who replaced the. Rittle acetate films corona scored a technological first by employing bigger base materials, ushering in a new era of Film Technology. Polyester Film Development solved one of the major Space Reconnaissance problems. In 1960 the new film was being used on every flight. The year 1961 was a time for the maturing of corona. With the series of launches, increasing coverage was added. 21 proved the feasibility of restarting the engine in space. A technique that would prove. Seful later to corona and nasa on the 30th of august, 1960 one, missions began to carry approved camera systems. Reentry programs were developed. Additional launch vehicle difficulties were worked out. Slowly but surely the problems were solved. It often seemed that when one was laid to rest, another rose to take its place. Many people, referring to these programs, remember the large number of failures that preceded the final success in discoverer 14. In fact there were a large number of failures. A launchpad was aborted on the pass. The capsule was impacted into the wrong area. We had an unsuccessful launch where the vehicle did not achieve proper velocity. We had a capsule that was ejected from the vehicle and bled off into a new orbit instead of going into the earths atmosphere. We had power failures. Have thermal problems. We have procedural problems and so forth. While these were a lot of failures, they were also the necessary developments to get us to the successes that we eventually needed. For example we did prove the booster and Ground Control systems. We improved the camera and the reentry body. Finally, we improve the overall system. To all of us who worked so closely with the program, government and contractor alike, we did not consider the until wer real success return to the exposed film to washington, d. C. One of the important points that we can rip one of the important points that we can is that the program entire team, the government agencies, the Service Industry up then down the line worked together to get this accomplished. I dont think it could have been done in todays climate. We probably would not have been number 64 go beyond the program was canceled. Go 12nly we wouldnt flights before the successful one on the 13th. Say that we did not have our discouraging moments and frustrations. I remember sometime along midstream, the eighth flight or night flight that we did not get back. One of the members of the team opined at one of our meetings that perhaps there was some fundamental reason why something could cannot could not come back from orbit. Some fundamental technical point that was missed. Maybe you could never get anything back from orbit. It goes to show you the direction of the thought at the point of time. Much difference. We went right along to the accomplishment. Later on we had it back in our hands. We have landed men on the several times. We have done so many incredible things. It is hard to believe or get years ago and3 how relatively unsophisticated we were. How little we knew about doing the intricate things that had to be done to make the system work. We ask ourselves today, after the fact, why this Program Works so well. Particularly the operating environment. How we got along with the companies, the ceos and the government. And i think that to understand how that works so well, you have to remember that we were a small banded the first lays, against the common enemy, the apparent impossibility of doing what we were about to do. Difficult to convey, particularly to young person today who has lived the last 10 or so years with all of the achievements that are so common. It is difficult to realize that in those days we were all operating in a space where we didnt think it could be done, but we were just going to try. Under those conditions the way that the company works, the way the team works, it is really did very different. Marney . Say hello. At the beginning of 1962, the discoverer series came to an end. The story waspts, worn out. There were too many launches to subject to the continuing program. Beginning with 38, april of 1962, all corona missions were announced as secret air force missions. In the first couple of years, only several missions returned film. But they did give an indication of what was in store. Most of the areas of vital interest had been covered. It had revealed as many times as many answers as previous reconnaissance history. But now the most apparent andtation was the length the amount of recoverable film. They produced the two camera system. This series for just more film coverage. More importantly, it literally added dimension by taking two photographs of the same area from slightly varying angles, allowing interpreters the advantage of looking at a photograph operatively, imagining a third dimension and the ability to accurately measure the height. This intelligence, along with that gathered by other means, allowed the cia to put together highly detailed technical data on soviet weapons systems. Thus we now knew how many were deployed and we could define the capabilities. The reliability of the Intelligence Community improved quantitatively. This knowledge meant that we should not overreact to conjecture about threats. Our own Space Capabilities were growing right now. Of our technological strength was coming from the developments themselves. To be the first stage vehicles that were attached by a cluster of small rockets. As it was, and allowed for heavier payloads and allowed for further improvement. Step was the development of the camera system that had the advantage of carrying two recoverable but is, meaning that one launched to provide film while the satellite still in position and then be directed to produce another. Hotograph the jays system and improve launch capabilities, plus the development efforts, turned the recovery of capsules from an event to a routine operation. John f. Kennedy stood on the berlin wall. We knew that we were unsurpassed, militarily. Freedom is indivisible. When one man is enslaved, all are not free. [applause] all free men, wherever they live, are citizens of berlin. Therefore, as a free man, i take pride in the words its been ien einberliner ich b berliner. In the 1960s the corona capabilities continually improved. And even more powerful booster was the floyd. The j juan gave rise to the j three. However, one can leave the story of the j one successes without mentioning its most spectacular failure. Launched in was april of 1964. Into orbit was uneventful. Telemetry indicated that there was partial completion in the power failure. Transmitted from other stations, injection still did not occur. One month later radar sightings indicated the satellite had burned up on entering the atmosphere. However, on july 7 two employees in southwestern venezuela found a battered, glimmering gold object. A photographer from San Cristobal all photographed the object and notified the american embassy. The team was sent to purchase it from the venezuelan government. The event was dismissed as a minor experiment gone astray. By 1965 the rate of success was phenomenal. On the average three out of four recoveries were made every month. The seven years of frustration and effort were paying off. In 1964 yielded four full days over target on each bucket. In 1965 the capacity was raised to five or bucket for a total mission of 10 days coverage. By 1966 it had more than doubled. All stages of the operation were performed under strict security. Movements were made at times when they arouse the least interest and were under maximum security control. Recovering, transporting, it was assigned to the air force. The highest priority was given to getting the film into the hands of interpreters. The bulk of the exposed film was rushed to the Westover Air Force base, where special facilities were set up to rush the processing under rigid Quality Control standards. The elaborate system for handling each exposure was followed, ensuring that no human error could reattempt the intelligence to be gained. No time went to waste. Yesterdays recovery was todays processing assignment. The flow of substantive intelligence increased and the speed went from the users as days and months to hours. Off the record by president johnson, the president spoke at a conference of educators in 1967 and said that because of satellite reconnaissance, he knows how many missiles the enemy has. Thene point he added that nation had spent 35 billion to 40 billion for military Space Programs but that the benefits of satellite photography alone would justify 10 times as many expenditures. Thatwas interesting at point in time was the effect of on whethertechnology the United States should deploy antiBallistic Missile systems. That sovietsproved were deploying such a system, urging the russians to curb the arms race. Thanks to corona, the apprehension ushered in by sputnik raise the real and affordable reaction. Not only had we achieved via bit the ability to raise about the balance of power credibly, we had switched over from the mock threat. We had revolutionized the process. Testede new areas were in hidden places or a significant movements occurred, we were no longer vulnerable simply to chance. A new eraade possible of technical intelligence. We were warned before the soviets intervened in czechoslovakia and had successfully monitored the situation in the middle east. We have proved that we are a good and reliable friend to those who seek peace and freedom. Shown that we can also be a formidable foe to those who reject the path of peace and those who seek to impose upon it our allies the yoke of tyranny. In 1967 the final evolution of the corona camera to lace. Although the j one was performing almost perfect way, it had been developed with a limited potential. The j three was designed to eliminate vibration and improve resolution and calibration data. The sophistication for the command response gave the j three much greater versatility. The j threeof improved intelligence quality substantially, proving to be even more reliable than the excellent j one. Test of the real improvements can be seen in the evolution of the image quality. On the earliest missions a target of 25 feet was all but unattainable. The Film Technology improved, the images resolved to smaller and smaller detail. Image resolution was down to five feet or six feet. This quantum improvement significantly improved the amount and quality of the intelligence derived from the product. In 1968 tests prove the value of the color of the imagery. They could do tech raab and environmental conditions. And environmental conditions. The impact on the photographic termination was enormous. I think it would be worth recording. Before the early 1960s, the hadral Intelligence Agency no photographic capabilities at all. We started with a handful of people. One of the great consequences of the program is the enormous rush of growth that it has created in our own photographic intelligence resources where the National Center is now probably the largest or one of the largest activities in the world. Largest in the west. When we started we had less than 13 people. Ofs than 800 square feet floor space. Here in the fall of 1972 we have more than 1500 people dedicated to the exploitation of these products. The budget this year is close to 30 million. It is in no way topped off. In 1960 this satellite was successfully retrieved. 16, 17 passes over the soviet union. 20 pounds of film came back. In less than seven days we have produced 130 pages of text. 1. 5 million square miles of coverage of the soviet union. This was the harbinger that warned us that what was coming. As we geared up to get ready for what was coming, both in instrumentation and procedure, the film was being flown in. By the programs and we were dealing with film coming in at the rate of 32,000 and said a 3600 linear feet permission. We were involved in the major issues of the time. All of the icbms in the soviet ,nion that had been discovered all of those enigmatic problems, we were right on top of these. We were involved in the major decisionmaking of the time. Which amend this demand upon the people of the center. Final launchand took place in may of 1972. The totality of the contribution to intelligence in the combined areas of the world and Space Program in general is virtually unmeasurable. Begun as ann attempt to escape threat exceeded beyond the wildest imaginations of those dictators. First, delivering intelligence information from the satellite. Second, mapping from space. Teachers fromc space. The first satellite to employ multiple vehicles. The first Reconnaissance Program to pass the 100 mission mark. The first photography from a satellite. The 167th recovery is more in the total of all other programs combined. Corona provided photographic coverage of 500 million square nada compiles of the earths surface, a dramatic achievement by itself. But the true importance to National Security came from the intelligence. From lifting the curtain of secrecy that surrounded the soviet union and the peoples republic of china. The contribution of corona between 1960 and 1972 can be summarized by saying that it made it possible for the president in office to react wisely to crucial International Situations at a time of critical balance between peace and war. [captioning performed by national captioning institute] it was confidence in our intelligence that allowed us to enter into the strategic arms treaty. There can be no doubt of the goal of corona in history. Corona is now history. It stands as an important point in time. The longest, and most successful of the nations intelligence programs to date. Corona explores and conquers the unknownsrecovery. Thates it in a wave follows more sophisticated systems. In a dairys done Farm Building in brussels. At a grocery warehouse in philadelphia. A helicopter plant in palo alto, california. Corona paid a huge dividend. Vital intelligence at an important point in time. [captioning performed by national captioning institute] [captions Copyright National cable satellite corp. 2014] with congress returning on monday, here is a message to congress from one of the student cam competition winners. Water. It makes up 75 of our bodies. Take water away and humanity would perish within a week. And water is the most vital substance to human body. Yet it is because of us humans that nearly 50 of all streams, an estuary are unsuitable for use due to pollution. In the u. S. We have learned to take water for granted. Faucets, bottled water, and flush toilets reinforce the same idea. Water is an unlimited resource. Outside and the diminishing condition tells a different story. Water pollution kills marine life, destroys ecosystems, and disrupts an already fragile food chain. Animals are not the only ones who suffer the negative affect of water pollution. Congress, in 2014 you must provide federal funding to Wastewater Treatment agencies across the country. Is lifeblood of our nation affected by the negligence of generations and it must stop here. Foroin us on wednesday for the theme of the 2015 student cam competition. President ford pardoned president nixon one month after the only president ial resignation in american history. Tonight at 8 00 p. M. And midnight eastern on the presidency, John Robert Greene considers the reason why he was pardoned and whether or not there was a deal between the two men. We will air archival footage of president fords address to the nation announcing the pardon. Environmental Historian Brian goldwaterses barry commitment to conservation and looks at how his commitment evolved over time. The kansas city public
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