Military affairs in United States military history. Hes also a fellow Department History alum from west point. And you know among others some comrades here. So joining him on this panel are two heavy hitters as well. Dr. John morrow you saw yesterday the Museum President ial counselor the franklin professor and chair of the History Department the university of georgia. Go dogs. Hes back and and joining him is associate professor of history at the university of new mexico, dr. Robert jefferson. To really lead us through this important topic. So on that adrian continued mission, right . Thank you. Appreciate that. Synonym to be its him. We are great. Thanks. Its an honor to be here. This is my third visit to the museum and every time i come its its grown. Its its mission has expanded. Its an exciting place and i i appreciate seeing that my father served in World War Two huey went ashore at normandy on the 14th day of the of the invasion and they served there for the rest of the war. My my family has a rich military history. Im retired army spent 20 years in the United States army sir with the infantry mostly with the ninth Infantry Divisions second of the first infantry second twenty third and served. Also. Its second range of a time. My my sister is our retired soldier. She served as an enlisted person and if we go back you can find lewiss who serve with the Buffalo Soldiers and also who served in the American Civil War so my family has a rich history of defending this country and serving this country in war and during peacetime. Many long years ago. Thank you. Thank you. Many long years ago. I had the opportunity to teach at the United States military academy at west point and i was in the middle art division and we taught this course there was a two semester course and it was called mill art the military art and it cadets used to call it from plato to nato and what we would do is wed start really with the greeks and the romans and we go all the way through up to current day vietnam war period in that in when i was teaching and this is the late 80s early early 90s when i was teaching there you could teach the whole American History part of it and africanamericans were not mentioned not once in there and i had the opportunity. I had a good boss colonel hamburger, and he and i sat down once we had a discussion on this and we did something unique and what he did is we went out and i recommended his book a guy named bernard nolte wrote a book called strength for the fight and its on the it covers the overview of africanamerican experience and history starting with the American Revolution actually colonial period mary revolution all the way through to current current day and theres a great book and colonel hamburger went out and he bought a copy of that for each member of the faculty and insisted that they start adding this into their their course material. He also later allowed me to teach a new course on entitled African Americans in the military history of the United States. So with with that background it is plea i am very pleased to see the if you go to society of military history conferences now, theres always something on africanamericans and military history of the United States. Theres always a session sometimes two sessions on this topic. So from in the last 20 years or so, there has been a major change in terms of this particular in terms of this particular topic, and im very pleased to im very pleased to to see that i have two great panelists here today, but before i do that, let me just do one more quick thing in terms of an overview. I was very recently asked to write a piece for guilder lariman and they are they work with high schools teachers and try and provide them with information and what i was asked to write on was africanamericans in the military history of the United States and they told me can you do do this in 500 words . Have listen on that and we went up to a thousand words on this thing and were still theyre still haggling with me about this, but let me just give you the opening paragraph of this thing. And then i want to give you a pattern and then ill introduce our our speakers. All right, so the first the first paragraph and this is a ive already sent this to them and theyre it right now. All right. Africanamericans have served fought and died all the major wars of the United States from the American Revolution to Operation Enduring freedom in afghanistan with the one exception of the mexicanamerican war. For much of that service africanamericans have fought in segregated segregated units led by white officers. They have fought on two fronts against racism prejudice and discrimination from their countrymen or one front and second against the enemies of the United States at home and abroad historically this service their contributions and sacrifices have been unrecognized unappreciated and unrewarded. John will talk a little bit later about how in some case both were about going back and trying to find people that earned male of honors and earned other awards, and i dont want stealing by thunder so that that will that will come up with theyre trying to go back now. Im trying to fix some of these past. Yeah injustice as i think is proper word for that. Let me one more thing and then ill get davidson. There was a pattern that was established. A pattern that has been established and that established during the American Revolution and it goes if this is this is the pattern in again, well talk more about this as we get into the discussion a period and pattern established during the American Revolution was first the exclusion rule they didnt want africanamericans to serve and you can imagine why that that is concepts of citizenships. You dont want them to think of like the soldiers soldiers are not people that you can enslave so the exclusion rule second rule was the necessity rule. This is when they didnt get enough white recruits, they couldnt find enough. People to feel the force and said this the next rule then was we need them to come and serve and fight. Rule was the Honorable Service rule black people showed up and fought for the country whenever asked and as a rule fought well, then the fourth rule was the denial rule and this this denial of the service that that has been rendered this. This was a pattern that went all the way up into the vietnam war and then as you know during the korean war the integration of the armed forces of the United States will take place under a guy named matthew b ridgeway, so that that pattern is is one that i tried to also put in this this document for guilder. Larman. With with that with that let me further introduce our panelists here. John morrow have been great drinking buddies for a while. Now are we are . We sort of sometimes lament the situation he and i are the only two senior military historian black military historians in the country and and well, were gonna have a few more beers over that but so john is the franklin. Oh it im were adding robert here to this to this to this group. John is the franklin and says professor of history at the university of georgia. He specializes in the history of Warren Society and the world wars he was educated at swarzemore college and the university of pennsylvania. John has taught over 50 years. Hes next year he is. He says he is next year. He tells me hes retiring but he has lets give my hand on that 50 years. Thats quite a bit of service there. Both, you know he first taught at the university of tennessee and knoxville and then at the university of georgia at both universities. He served as the chair of the departments and was recognized for his excellence in teaching john has to also taught at the United States military academy where he was awarded the Us Us Department of the Army Outstanding civilian service medal. He has gained recognition for his ability to demonstrate how the past and present intertwined in extrically john has published six books. Im not going to go through the entire list here. The the great war in the air a comprehensive history of world war one the great war and imperial history and he is coauthored to study on harlem hell fighters and i believe thats the one who will be hearing the most about today. I love it is the harlem and the great war. In 2019. I was we were in chicago at the Pritzker Military museum where john received the libraries prestigious literary award for Lifetime Achievement in in writing so he has been recognized for his for as many accomplishments there, right . Robert robert, jefferson is the associate professor of history at the university of new mexico. You know, its a phd in africanAmerican History from the university of michigan. I just found out that we had the same advisor our Professor John chai at the university of michigan his research focuses on the relationship between race gender and citizenship in the 20th century. He is the author of fighting for hope africanamericans and the 93rd Infantry Division in World War Two and post war america. Which received nomination for the William Colby book prize. He is currently working on two books one titled win. Jim crow faced the new army World War Two and the nonsegregation of the United States military and the second book entitled. Color and disability vasco hail in the 20th century america. He is written numerous articles and i wont go through the the long list of that. But that is our our panelist and with that i will turn it over to john and thank you, adrian. I might have known he would disclose were drinking buddies. Weve been waiting to get back together for a couple of years now. We havent had a beer in two years and they gave us wine last night. So were still we still have to update here. Its pleasure to be with you again today. Once again, my role is ill call myself to set up man. Because last time i basically set the stage for roberts presentation of the dory miller story today it is my job to give you the background. Before World War Two about military service and world wars so that you understand that. In World War Two africanamericans had one thing foremost in their mind when it began and that was how they had served. Well in world war one. And gotten not only no recognition for it. But had been greeted when they returned home with race massacres and race riots. So its a very fascinating story. At the end of this past august congress announced its award of the congressional gold medal to the 360 infantry regiment originally. The 15th, New York National guard colored or Harlem Hellfighters, which has been their name my coauthor and i refer to them as the harlem rattlers because the men themselves referred to the patch the shoulder patch which showed a coil rattlesnake and dont tread on me, but everyone knows them popularly as the hellfighters because their band which was absolutely famous for spreading jazz and europe on the leadership of james reese. Europe called itself the Harlem Hellfighters band. They received this. Congressional recognition over a century after this service in world war one now black soldiers in world war one fought to prove that they merited equal Citizenship Rights under law. And although most of them were relegated to labor duties, which was typical. The 42,000 who saw combat in two division the 92nd Buffalo Division in the buffalo soldier. Which served in the American Expeditionary forces . And the 93rd provisional division known as the blue helmets and if you look at the insignia of the 93rd division, it shows a blue french helmet because they served in the french army and world war one. Fought well in the time overseas as well as in the United States. But in particular in france the french army received their africanamerican. Attachments because these regiments were actually part of french divisions. They received these men as comrades and colleagues in the fight against germany and the thing that was very noticeable when the 369th arrived to meet its french infantry partner, which would train them. Was that as one of the colonel said, i dont understand this. The our men are Walking Around with these french soldiers talking valuably waving their arms and discussing things. He said, but the french soldiers dont speak any english and our men dont speak any french. So how is this happening . Well, we know people can communicate picked in french picked in english, but they were able to do the pitching routine very well and got along in fact the french actually invited to black officers in the regiment to their mess, which is distinction because both of them one was a captain the other was lieutenant spoke fluent french from their college education. Problems that the africanamerican soldiers encountered were from their white counterparts. White soldiers would not recognize black officers. White soldiers in particular marines if they had to serve together on the docks as steve adores with a black soldiers would end up attacking them and numb they were actually intra american wars on the docks. In which these men are killing each other before they go into combat. And basically theyre spending their time telling french women that black soldiers have tails which of course had the opposite effect intended because that actually increased the attraction because the frenchman naturally wanted to see well where the hell were these tales . What were they really . What were the guys really talking about . So thats stupid as hell but its it that happens in World War Two as well. The 369 regiment amassed the best combat record of any american regiment in world war one any american regiment in world war one . Lost no prisons to the germans. Lost no ground to the germans when under attack. Spent the longest time 191 days in the front lines of any american regiment. And it suffered the most losses and you have to remember in world war one you proved. Your combat valor in losses because that was a war where you went straight out the enemy and you basically had to confront these fortified areas. 1500 casualties which is actually half of regimental strength. The french awarded the regiment through quality gear a regimental quad together the french warcross. And in fact on top of its three battles the last of which the battle of seycho in which the regiment over four and a half miles of open ground seized the village of seycho a fortified village took it from the germans and held it until the french got got there at serious losses. That gave them the french. Regimental band of silver at the top of their regimental standard which is Still Available in new york in their armory . This is during the champagne mirrors our gun. Offensive in september and october of 1918 when the 369th return to american lines the men were promptly set upon by white mps who were beating them up for any reason. And one of the white majors actually pulled this pistol on a wide mp after he cracked a skull of one of his men would ask for bathroom and said, why are you doing this . And the white mp said and no uncertain terms, and im going to use the word. This is to let your know that theyre back in the United States now and this is the kind of treatment they can expect. A captain louis shaw was highly decorated. Wrote to his mother during the month. They spent behind the lines. The american lines that that was the worst month that the regimen had spent in their entire deployment that he was so depressed. He could not really write her a full accounting, but if he was depressed you can imagine how the black soldiers felt because they were the ones who were set upon and saw himself had said at the battle of say show every last one of the commissioned officers had gone down wounded and it was the black sergeants that took their men into seycho and seize the town. Its worth it to keep this in mind. Now the 369th is only one of the regiments. But several black soldiers in both the 90s second and 93rd divisions received distinguished Service Crosses and french war crosses their valor in combat. Even though some of their white officers in these various units recommended a few of these men for the medal of honor. A racist war decoration board never considered any of them. Henry johnson one of the first heroes of the war announced in praise John Pershings first. Communicate to the American Public in may 1918 in a front line guard posts 30 meters out in front of his lines with one other man fought off a patrol and the other fellow was seriously wounded fought off a patrol as his captain estimated of anywhere from 20 to 24 german infiltrators at night killing four of them. The germans did this with every unit that arrived new in the lines. They always wanted to capture prisoners and so sometimes in battalion strength, this was in patrol strength but they encountered Henry Johnson. Who beat the hell out of them and they retreated . And is captain proudly took . Some newspaper reporters whove just happened to blunder into their lines not even aware that there was a black regiment in the front lines. Took them to the scene of the combat. And Henry Johnson suddenly emerged as a great hero in the press you see cartoons of him . I always laugh. He looks like a line in the cartoons. Henry johnson was five feet six inches tall and 129 pounds. But his wife in albany when she heard the news. Bill he called him bill bill may be stopped small but in a fight he can go some thats the understatement of the year. Henry johnson the hero of the 369th received his medal of honor in 2015. All right. After the new york delegation requested this and a review of this distinguished service cost of such interesting. This has been done for World War Two we have yet to see the results of the review of the distinguished Service Crosses awarded africanamericans in world war one. To see if further there are only two that have been awarded so far under freddys towers. Wow one to Henry Johnson, but that review remains unfinished. Now these men in their units were never recognized. This is delivered. Because white southern offices of the 92nd division, this is regular army, of course lied about and denigrated the combat service of africanamerican troops and officers in their effort to ensure that the Peacetime Army would be as white as possible. Now if this astounds you just in case you might have the idea in the back of your mind that. Maybe im exaggerating and not telling the truth because i happened to be black and because my uncle was a water to distinguished Service Cross for valor in the First World War for saving his Commanding Office onto fire. A man he hated because the whiteoff saw always demeans as black men take a look at a book by the white historian who died recently Robert Farrell entitled unjustly dishonored he tells the history of the 90s second in unvarnished terms and what these offices did. And destroyed their history. And Army War College report in 1925 when black soldiers in world war one reflected the success of these southern offices with its comments about the small brains of black men unproven their lack of initiative, not Henry Johnson and those sergeants and their illibility to stand up to combat. Obviously, thats not true. All of which black soldiers actual Wartime Service had disproved. It should come as no surprise that this allegedly comprehensive report did not even include the 369th infantry regiment. The two black divisions were demobilized in 1919 and the army consequently made no progress in Race Relations in the interworld period now black soldiers in 1919 returned to a United States of race riots and massacres culminating in the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921, which was received a lot of publicity and documentaries this year because this is a hundredth anniversary of it. To personalize this my great uncle returned to washington dc with his dsc and French Quarter gear in the middle of the washington race riot of february 1919 it gave his medals and his colt 1911 a 45 to his younger brother and sid. I am leaving this country before i kill every white man. I can find until they kill me. This is the thanks i get for my service in this war and he became a merchant mariner and then ultimately returned to the United States to work in the post office and died young from his war time wounds at the age of 34. More than 10 soldiers were lynched upon returning home to the self and uniform. The message White Americans delivered we will keep you in your position of inferiority through mob violence and lynching if necessary. America entered a racist repressive and reactionary era that witnessed the resurgence of the ku klux klan with its washington marches in 25 26, and then the rise of america Nazi Movement in the 1930s. But the war had lit a match to the flame that burned in the hearts of black people for equal rights. Take for example the life of charles, hamilton, houston. Born in 1895 in washington, dc the lone black student in his class at Amherst College in the 19 teens he graduated valedictorian and phi beta kappa. You join the army and world war one serves as the First Lieutenant in france. White officers in men refused to recognize it was a bright as their black counterparts and he later wrote. The hayden scorned showered on us offices by our fellow americans convinced me that there was no sense in my dying for a world rule by them. I made up my mind that if i got through this war, i would study law and use my time fighting for men who could not strike back. He earned his jd at harvard established the law school at howard university. And trained a generation of black lawyers including future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood marshall to use the war to fight Racial Discrimination as special counsel for the naacp in 1935. He created litigation strategies to attack racial housing covenants, and he played a role in every civil rights case before the Supreme Court between 1930 and brown via the board education in 1954. Youre in the title the man who killed jim crow. Houston exemplified the direct response of many africanamericans to the injustices that White Americans deliberately imposed on their black counterparts for military and civilian service in world war one with another war looming in the late 1930s africanamericans determine that it would not yield the same results as houston warned the us general staff and a letter to the editor of the New York Times in 1938. In the next war are not going to be content with peeling potatoes and washing dishes. Thank you. Children good morning. From the moment africanamerican soldiers entered the World War Two army they realized they had joined the historic battle to secure first class citizenship. Like Long Distance runners. They knew the race would be more intractable as they advance through their stateside training. And to the battle fronts of europe asia, africa and the pacific, but i dont think they realize how long the race would have to be run run and the type of forwardthinking they would have to embrace the sea not only the fruits of their Wartime Service. But also the square their own visit to square their own. Sense of reality and also the haunting memories of their fallen comrades. And as the decades of the 20th century were on public recognition of africanamerican valor. Would parallel the the peaks and valleys of the modern civil rights struggles oftentimes intersecting at various points in their lifetimes. So what follows from me are some of the observations of moments when those lines of interaction and intersection occurred . 92 the army opened and investigation into the africanamerican contribution to the Second World War. And the lack of black medal of honor recipients from the war led by notable scholars. The panel discovered that the raises efforts made by Senior Army Commanders in the european and pacific theaters of operation. To disparage the fighting capabilities of africanamerican gis led to the creation and development of a policies that downgraded the performances of black soldiers as opposed to their white counterparts. And with that theater commanders imposed a general policy of excluding black gis from combat and pernicious. Is that barred them from even qualifying for awards . Of combat distinction so the paperwork for these individuals who earn battlefield recognition and have received the distinguished Service Crosses. Was frequently disregarded dismissed and neglected. Realizing this the panel recommended that the army review all of the cases where soldiers received such awards for the gallantry in battle and after several rounds of meetings the Army Decorations board determined in 1993 the seven soldiers Edward Carter John Fox Rubin rivers willie James Charles Thomas Vernon baker and george will watson served they they deserve mentioned and that the circ. Answers surrounding their cases required special attention but the question is how did the surviving members of the inquiry receive the armys action at that time . I wish to open my remarks with a fateful phone call. In march of 1994 two individuals communicated opposite ends of history. The respondent and a recent, idaho resident was both bewildered and skeptical. As to the intent of the voice emanating on the other end of the line. The subject was the medal of honor and World War Two. The callinformed them were researchers on a Study Commission by the secretary of the war of war to review cases of the soul of black soldiers who received the distinguished Service Cross. In World War Two to see if they deserve the medal of honor. Responded in question was this individual vernon baker . Baker had just begun to settle into a life as a retired army officer and was looking forward to spending his years hunting elk in the nearby forests. But baker was more perplexed by the question that the voice posed on the other end. And that is where can we meet you next month . You have to remember what baker at this particular moment in his life. He remembered decades earlier that a popular magazine in American Society was asking the question. Where was where was vernon baker . Well, some of the responders wrote into this magazine saying that he was dead and he was perplexed by that. He was still very much alive. But first, let me talk to you about vernon baker and his importance. Baker was a member of the all black us 92nd Infantry Division. This was a unit that saw fierce action in italy in 1945. Elements of this division serve with great distinction they captured many towns in throughout italy during the one of the most crucial campaigns of the fighting. And also destroying enemy resistance all along the way. The unit suffered nearly 300 casualties including over 220 men wounded and nearly 70 who were killed in action. However, the 92nd also earned the respect of senior army leaders. With seven men distinguishing themselves on the field of battle and earning the silver star for gallantry in action. The actions of two of the units the 366 infantry regiment during the spring of 1945 during a very crucial offensive produced two future medal of honor recipients. However, when the germans regroup and stymied the allied advanced toward rome the 92nd. Actions drew stinging Harsh Criticism from its Senior Officers and assessment that is resonated down through the historical record until recently nevertheless the men of the division were showered with praise and also accolades that included over 12,000 military decorations and citations three distinguished Service Crosses 16 legion of merit medals, and also 145 silver stars. For his for his part baker distinguished himself in action in italy during the spring of 1945. During an assault on castle agonolfi baker singlehandedly covered the withdrawal of Wounded Soldiers under his command while laying down suppressive fire and and lobbing. Needs into an enemy machine gun in placement nest and then in the process he knocked out an enemy observation post destroying four machine gun nests and also killing several germans in the in the wake of that. Heres inspiring action. Not only managed the successful evacuation of surviving members of his company, but he also helped to secure his battalions objective. Although baker would go on to earn their distinguished Service Cross. He wouldnt receive public recognition for his valor and in the face of battle until 52 years. Later. And then january of 1997 president bill clinton honored the 77 year old man with the nations highest distinction the medal of honor. But you got to remember for baker he was he was initially skeptical about this whole process. And when he was approached by Army Researchers five decades later. He remembered he was reluctant to converse with anyone about his World War Two service for several reasons, but chief among them was this sense of frustration and guilt that he harbored about having survived the horrific fighting in italy in 1945. He stated at the time quote. I still felt as if i received my do with the distinguished Service Cross i needed no further recognition, and i didnt need the personal hell of recounting detail by detail the most horrifying days of my life. However baker relented to the questioning of the military researchers at the realizing that he owed the recounting of his story more to his fallen comrades than to himself. And this seems to be the pattern with these individuals that serve during this period that they selflessly. Would relegate themselves to the background but would relent to do so in the recounting of the story in order to bring to bring further attention to those common they left behind. But later he would refer to this this whole ordeal as in this way. He would say i am not an icon for any ideal. My heroes mantle has been crafted out of carnage the senseless sacrifice of young men and my mad dog just desperation to outlast the enemy and to disprove the myth and the fiction that black soldiers were afraid to fight so in the time that i have remaining i want to lay out three questions that baker and his generation raised for us today. The first one is how into what degree did the cause of civil rights struggle coalesce around the World War Two service a black gis light baker during the early 1940s. The heroes mantle that baker reference was certainly a part of the stakes that were raised for young African Americans who served in the in the World War Two military of the 1940s. In total over 1. 5 million African Americans joined the armed forces after the us entry into the war. Most black military personnel stood under the nation stars and stripes while serving in a race in racially segregated units in europe. Asia north africa and in the pacific but as in world war one as just mentioned in this in a brilliant talk. Black tis found that they they had to run a gauntlet. Of americanstyle racism state sanctioned jim crow military policy and also they had to endure bouts of race racial prejudice and humiliation stateside as well as overseas. As the guns of war sounded off in 1939. You have to remember only five. Of nearly 5,000 black soldiers in the us army were officers with three of them assigned as chaplains. And for black women who served in the war the titanic struggle for equality was even more daunting. Its important to remember that throughout the history of this country black women confronted the indignities of racism and sexism and they quite often encountered them simultaneously. The challenges africanamerican women face while attempting to surmount these obstacles became even more dire when they saw it recognition as first class citizens. In American Society so in a sense the American Military served as a microcosm of their historic struggles. And prior to World War Two for instance just to give you an idea about this africanamerican women were largely barred from military service in the previous war only 18 were accepted for duty in the army nurse corps. So they had a Giant Mountain to a scale. Nevertheless despite all of these these hardships you had educators like Mary Mcleod Bethune black womens organizations such as the National Council of women and also africanAmerican Publications during this period who relished the opportunity to waste for ways the war to and the battle to fight for the right to fight. Also once they entered the military africanamerican men and women founded their battles. For the right to for the right to fight bumped heads with the militarys longstanding racial policies most black soldiers reported to racially segregated units come basically combat support units such as quartermaster engineering and also transportation units around the same time the Army Air Forces increase its numbers of black aviators, but remember these aviators also served in segregated basic units as well. And most of those who serve who served in these units they found themselves relegated to training, but post that were in the deep south. Which for many of them and from my own personal experience my my grandfather thought in World War Two trained at fort bragg from the moment that he arrived on base. He found that his what his fight was just beginning because even if you were able to run the gauntlet of and also able to survive the military training you had to leave the post and when you left the post there was a different reality that that you faced. Then at the same time once they were deployed abroad black soldiers also faced. Exported american racism that is they had to find in the in the prospect of finding places to be deployed. They had they face obstinence and also resistance from countries like australia greenland iceland china Great Britain and the west indies who frequently advised the War Department against sending black gis to their countries citing the antagonistic attitudes of their of their local populations towards their presence. And then also which was really quite humorous today, but really was part of the reality that they face. These Army Authorities also alluded to erroneous myths of extreme temperatures to block troops from being able to serve abroad whether they talked about. There it the climate being too cold for them to fight. Or being in places where they felt that the climate was inhospitable for them to even train. It was a way to keep them away. Keep them from even entering their countries altogether. But many of these units once they were deployed server great distinction for the sake of time. Ill mention one. The 761st tank battalion was among the 22 black combat units that saw heavy combat heavy action in the european theater of operations. The 761st elements of the 761st tank battalion were attached to general George Pattons third army. And the unit landed in normandy and took part in many pitch battles throughout francebelgium holland and well into germany soldiers with this battalion were were also among the first troops. To see the deadly results of adolf hitlers final solution first hand after marching through the kind that concentration camps. In april of 1945 and for their part this unit sustained heavy casualties with three officers and 31 men who were killed in action and over 200 men wounded in the process. So despite all of these obstacles these individuals fought and these units they fought with great distinction often they fought for themselves as well as for and in one soldier told me in one interview they fought for themselves and for for god and their country they still love the country even though the country did not express love for them. My second question for you today to think about is how into what degree did the ordinary in this of black military service in their rights revolve around issues of race and disability. And how did those issues shape the civil rights struggles of black gis . What i have for you. Is a loop of an individual . And to give you the context for this think about this for a second for many black gis who survived the fighting fronts abroad. The real war was just beginning. Thanks to a young listener to a recent generation of scholars the postwar civil rights struggles of World War Two veterans, like amsey moore as well as medgar evers, aaron henry and dove roundtree are well, no. On many fronts black veterans face raw terror as they work harassed beaten and murdered by white civilians and Law Enforcement authorities. Moreover they returned to a country that within the midst of massive unemployment and with that they also found that their efforts to to try to. Sees the right to vote the franchise the exercise the right and to take advantage of the of the gi bill of rights. Were oftenstimied by continued Racial Discrimination. This loop that i just showed you. Is one of a very special individual he represented. One of 24,000 black gis who were undergoing rehabilitation at this at this particular moment. Many of them this individual and im showing you was prominently displayed in a War Department of 1946 film. Looking at the social adjustment training of blind gis. His name is vasco hail. He was a hes he was a former School Teacher from west, virginia. Hail served with the us 93rd Infantry Division and was wounded and was was grievously injured during a training accident in december of 1943. He was one of five africanamericans who was blinded rendered partially death and received bilateral hand amputations as a result of sustaining traumatic injury. In fact hail was so badly injured. That when he was brought into the net into the station hospital. Chaplains were summoned to counsel the wounded soldier and to administer last rights to him because they feared he wouldnt survive. But survive he did. In fact, he himself had great a great deal express a great deal of ambivalence about his about his injuries on the one hand. He never despaired about the extent of his injuries. He worried about how his wife was going to receive him once he returned home. But despite all of the misgivings that he had he would go on to have a very illustrious career as a rising star in the National Association of color peoples branch. Of connecticut and he would also serve as one of the major officers in the newly formed blinded veterans association. I say this as a way of stating that whenever we talk about this the civil rights struggles of these veterans. We need to think about how race and disability also configured their existence as well. Now my third question and i wrap this up. Is in the ways and what were the ways in which the africanamerican World War Two experience . How were they embedded in past and present civil rights struggle . Well in the decades following World War Two the post war experiences. Of black you guys dovetail with the past and also present civil rights struggle and unsettling ways. For instance. Its through this period that we see. Basically military service and civil rights shaking hands and very awkward ways my last slide that i have for you is this one . This this one is a is a slide. Of a World War Two veteran by the name of lemuel pen let me know penn and two other comrades were traveling through through georgia in 1964. They had just had just finished training at fort benning georgia as a part of an army reserve weekend training at exercise and they were going home. For for when as were going home . And they were passing through nearby athens, georgia. They noticed that there was a car approaching them from the rear. This car with overtake them and in the process of overtaking them there was fire shotgun blast into the car wounding critically wounding and and killing colonel penn. The story of pins killing in 1964 was monumental because i want to remind you. That it this happened in the summer of 1964 at the very moment when the three civil rights workers in mississippi had disappeared. This story made such a splash in the Africanamerican Community and also it also seared the consciousness of the american landscape. Because the country started asking themselves to question who was colonel penn. Well, i had a chance to interview one of the survivors of that shooting and he talked to me about who penn was and this World War Two veteran was similar to all most of them that i ever met. They would refer to you at by your last name. And this this person his name was john howard said jefferson. Pin like the refer to himself as a man an officer and an educator in that order. But he also went on to talk about how even though he and one other person that was in the car had survived the ordeal. How they were led to feel as they were being questioned by the cid and the fbi at that time. The they thought that they were being questioned and held responsible for the event occurring altogether. Well, i want to wrap up with this. Is that even though pens murder and also the trial that followed led to the exoneration of the individuals who were charged with it the crime by all white jury. The collective memory of the ordeal has been burnished in the publics in the publics memory and then that slide that i have in front of you. There was a in 2018 in the wake of the murders that were taking place of young men and women around the country a young singersongwriter by the name of edward. David anderson recorded a song. In which he memorialized penn. He talked about his character. He talked about what happened the events that unfolded that day and then he also talked about. What it meant for his generation of americans living at that moment. So to wrap this up. In that sense the heros mantle typology that vernon baker talks to us about and describing his World War Two generation and his willingness to sacrifice that all was sacred for the sake of his comrades. That story has been refitted to meet the demands in which we now live. Thank you. Great. Im gonna have two quick two quick questions, and now i want to save some time. I apologize. We all three of us went over a little bit with this. So i do want a i have time for questions, but let me just one quick question to each of the other presenters here first to john the the 369th. You stated hit more time in combat than any other. Other american units, can you . Tell me why excuse me explain that i used to get that all the time from cadets. So i would like for everybody understand that and and robert knew the issue of the Civil Rights Movement in the veterans. Can you kind of outline how they much the civil right movements how World War Two veterans impacted that right now a lot with those with that will allow. Open it up to a questions. Okay. All right. The 369th arrived in france in january 1918 they were assigned to labor duties the first couple of months and then pershing who really had not planned to allow these men to fight although they were National Guardsmen and it signed up to fight got to memorandum from his french counterpart filipino repeter. Who is the commander of the french northwestern front pay tax said you have regiment of black soldiers. Its just landed you have three more regiments coming in this provisional 93rd division, which only exists on paper and he said, wed like to have them in the french army. Well pershing as we know was very reluctant to part with any american soldiers, but africanamerican soldiers were sort of different he may have made a name blackjack, but persian had no particular love for the black soldiers. He had commanded earlier. And pay time was quite persuasive. So pershing released all four regiments and then what peyton did was turned them into combat infantry immediately. Equipping them with french our label or beltier rifles and equipment. Thats why theyre called the blue helmets because initially they wore the blue helmets to the french army by march their training with their french counterpart regiment and by april therein lines and by may Henry Johnson. Accomplishes his amazing feat. The french army was very short. Of combat infantry at that time. They were interested in bringing more and more african soldiers to the western front to compensate for the severe losses. They had suffered in the war. But that meant that if you were in the french army you were there to fight. And so they were not pulled out of the lines. They would tend to some of the officers would occasionally get a leave. But the men might rotate back to a third line of reserve trenches where unfortunately they were still under german artillery fire and a number of them were killed even in those lines, but they would rotate back to the front battalion by battalion usually a couple of battalions in the front and one in reserve, but they were always there and that was their condition to the end of the war. I think its worth it to note that when they arrived in the french army the men both their white and black officers and the men really were very happy to be trained by the french in the latest combat techniques because the american units that were in the United States that would come over in larger. Unit size never got that kind of training so they felt they were very well prepared for trench warfare. They knew combat occurred at night and they were there for able to give a very good account of themselves from the very beginning and our research discovered. Theres at least one other black soldier a sergeant who performed an incredible feat just before the battle of sei show and was recommended by his captain for a medal of honor. No ones heard anything about it. So i think its worth it to note that. They had the opportunity and i make this very clear the french gave africanamericans. The opportunity to die for france and the United States. In their army ranks they also made it very clear to the soldiers the french soldiers they were serving with that these men were not. Black men from the bush in africa these were educated civilized black men from one of the major cities in the world, of course, not as major as paris, but at least new york would do so thats why they have this Extensive Service which they are proud to render because on the way back they were the first unit to reach the rhine river with their french division. They were actually stationed on the rhine for a while until in december. They had to go back to the american army. So the french honored them and to this day at say show it was a private monument erected in their honor for their service there. Thank you. Great. Thank you when i used to get that question from cadets. My my answer was a lot shorter. It was a persian didnt want them. Oh. Robert the question was posed to me. How did World War Two black World War Two veterans influenced the modern Civil Rights Movement, right . Two ways first it in terms of thinking about the military sector. Many of the many black gis who hope to serve and who would go on to serve . Was serving the us military but heres the kicker and thats this. Many of them would go on to serve in the us air force when the air force is created after the war and then for those who chose to stay in the in the us army. They would become they would later. Rise to becomes senior cadre in that desegregated us army armed forces in the latter stages of the korean war. Thats the first area. On the second one is civilian the civilian sector. Many of them like medgar evers and also amsey moore and others would go on to become advocates for the Voting Rights campaigns. That would be waged in, mississippi and then also numerous veterans in the state of georgia would become active in the Voting Rights campaigns there. Then later they would also move on to become. And and i found this from my own Research Many of them would come go on to become active lieutenants in the emerging Civil Rights Movement and one person that comes to mind was in the state of milwaukee where he started to initiate the lead not only Voting Rights campaigns, but also equal housing open housing campaigns in in the city in milwaukee. And then also they would become the shock troops of that modern Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s right . Great. Thank you. That i think well open open it up to questions. I i want one just one more quick comment the great meaning the gi bill was not fairly distributed, but my father was one of those individuals who was able to take. Part in the gi bill and so in the aftermath of the war he could move his family into the middle class as a function of college that and and that that also had an influence i would also just at one final comment on that is that people who serve in the armed forces of the United States to be successful in the armed for you have to have a particular you you learn a culture. It is one of service. It is one of courage. It is one of tenacity is want to drive is the one you dont quit and when you get people like that you put them back in the civilian world. That doesnt leave them. All right those qualities of characters stay with them and i would also make an argument that that influence is that drive with the Civil Rights Movement also, so having said that ill take questions and im having a hard time seeing up here. So yeah, well start to your left about halfway back gentlemen. Wonderful talk to all of you. Thank you so much for your presentation. My question is this i have read that. In terms of the Civil Rights Movement people give credit to World War Two saying that that was the triggering event and then i have read the opposite where they said now the Civil Rights Movement really did not get triggered by World War Two it came later. What is the opinion of our panelists here . Robert and she started show i actually believe that that and for and i found this from my own research. Is that World War Two lays the foundation for being able to admit to make those in large claims during the late 1940s and 1950s about what citizenship means i think for that generation after seeing a previous generation having to fight a war world war and also making sense of what that war meant for them. They become that and having these conversations and their families i think and in the neighborhoods, they they come at this at a rather looking at it in a rather sophisticated way if you dont have think about this person for instance if you did not have that worldwide conflict. Then africanamericans would not be able to draw the sharp distinction between what they are what they were what theyre fighting for. And the profess things that and the professions the principles for which theyre being denied or being excluded that contrast is one that follows them. Into the postwar period and it is a lesson that is drawn from successive generations. Yeah, i think in particular what i was saying, is that you have what we now consider to be a long Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Movement is actually gotten longer not shorter in the sense that after world war one even before world war one, but after world war one in particular and Charles Hamilton houston is the best example African Americans and hawaii members of the ndoubleacp decided it was time to wage a constance traded struggle legal struggle to change the laws of the United States to allow for africanamerican equality and the Second World War gives an Even Stronger impetus to it because very simply they were robbed of it after world war one and they vowed. No this isnt happening again. You met us last time with violence. But this time as i mentioned last night let yesterday afternoon. There were enough white. Soldiers who had served with them who thought this isnt right. So it was an integrated Civil Rights Movement that fought and i think the Second World War gave that large impetus. Kid, can i add one more thing to that the other thing is is that i think with the exposure that and this goes back to world war one too. Is that the exposure that the gis had to the Racial Climate overseas and its the places they were deployed . Gave them in an enhanced view as to what american democracy could be in its shortcomings at the same time. I think they were drawing. They had a sort of mental. It cosmology in which all of these things were taken place. Just a quick point on that. When our men a couple of very good books woman british women by the name of kate wehren has written a book mutiny in the duchy. Which talks about how british soldiers and World War Two with africanamericans who were stationed there . When they saw how badly white mps treated africanamerican soldiers british soldiers actually took up their cause and british women when these White American soldiers would say dont dance with black soldiers simply disregarded them, but its a good example of the sense that they are better received. Um in england and some of these other places then they are in their own ranks in the army and it makes an impression on them and keep remembering that one of the problems we have in the post World War Two era fighting the cold war as the soviets can always look at us and say this is how they treat their minorities. Do you really think they are worthy of leading socalled free world . Next question is to your right towards the back. Morning. Thank you so much for this. Ive learned a tremendous amount. My question is on im not diminishing the challenges that black soldiers face during World War Two. My father was a World War Two veteran and he im ashamed to say that i didnt ask him any questions about it and and before he passed away. So now its for me. This is all very good information. My question is about the support units. He served in a i guess an engineering unit and id like to know more about the support units for the black in World War Two. But ill start off with that when when my father landed it in the second week there at normandy. He was in an engineer unit also, but that didnt mean they didnt see combat the when we went into europe we had this thing called the Transportation Plan where were destroyed a lot of stuff from the air and as a consequence of that when we were moving forward, we have to rebuild all that stuff bridges road networks, and theres a consequence of that the engineers were very busy. Another black unit was the red ball express and its again, its its a support unit. They driving trucks trying to feed patents army and other armies that they advanced but those guys see combat also in addition. You have separate battalions like the 761st tank battalion and then you had Tank Destroyer units also that fought in in World War Two and just one more quick point. Is that as the battle of the bulge rages and the Us Army Stars running out of infantrymen the first integration starts and what they did was they took they offered oh, its always think about this were offering. You to go fight germans saying combat units the they off they created black platoons, and then they stuck those they attach those black platoons, and this is under eisenhower. There was some opposition to it, but they took these black platoons and they stuck them into white units. So you got a White Company with two platoons. They added a black platoon to it. And thats because doing the battle of the bulge which is the biggest heaviest ballot the United States army has ever fought they were running out of infantrymen they were running out of white soldiers to feel the ranks and as a consequence of that they the first integration will will take place on that scale anyway, but did you want to anyone want to add . Yes, in fact i met a jumpman here at the World War Two museum a few years ago who was featured in a National Geographic magazine article. I think he was a hundred and ten at last notice. Hes going to 112 now. Hes out of us all but he had been and one of these battalions that built airfields in the pacific for the us air force to use and we remember africanamerican engineers built the owl can highway at a time when they live in alaska. Not that anyone would want to live in alaska and built the lido, you know and built the lido road in burma everywhere. You need construction African Americans are and i think the fascinating thing about as adrian said these fifth platoons these men were not trained as infantry. They are rankers from other units in come in and take that quick Interest Rate training and go ahead straight for the front and do very well in combat. So this is for the proof you might think youre in quartermaster unit, but but when you get the opportun you say oh, yes, id love to even though they had to give up their rank because they were never allowed to outrank a white soldier. Thats right. Yeah, were gonna do one last question before our break to the center halfway back folks. Thank you. And thank you gentlemen for your for all your doing here today. I just wanted to know two quick questions one is did after Armistice Day Armistice Day when world war one ended. Basically, did any of the 369 stay in france . Good, excuse me. Good to see you again today. I was talking with you yesterday. The armistice is a sore point. Because the black soldiers were hurried out of france. As quickly as possible. Um by 19 early 1919 the only black soldiers who remained in france were the grave diggers. Who were assigned to dig up all the corpses of the men who had been killed and reenter them in the National Cemeteries that we still visit today . This leads to the fact that in the great victory parade of 1919. All the countries who had fought in the war had all of their soldiers regardless of color you name it the french have indochinese africans the british the same indians. There is no africanamerican soldier that participated in that parade and as a result in the painting at the pantheon de geer in paris. The africanamerican soldiers were the only ones who were not in the famous portrait. They had to be added later. Well gentlemen, thank you very much for an insightful and engaging. 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