Not only just just here in the united states, but lots of other places too. So theres this aspect of language about whats knowledge of language thats inside your head, that you actually that every human being shares. But then theres also a separate nation about language, about how do you put it, what use do you put language . And those are 2 Different Things to different ways of looking at language. So if linguists can now think about the evolution of language, like what is language, or where is the language of all the ng . I mean, is it for them being divided into many different ones or will would just all speak at rahman tongue one day, sooner rather than later. Right. When i say, i dont think i will arrive at some kind of limbo where there is just simply one language used by everyone. I think there you have to distinguish between again 2 fundamental ways of looking at the evolution of language. One way is to think of it, you can think of the evolution of well, what was the initial origin of language. You know how you said thousands of years ago. And then theres the business about ad a language is change over generational time from one generation to the next. And that finer level, we see that languages do actually change. But it depends a upon the number of people that are speaking them. And if theres a law and out of the group of people that speak a particular dialect or language, then by and large that survives and thats subject to historical forces and other factors. So in fact, theres some, theres some places where people try to revive things like the scottish dialect or use weaves. We actually revive some of the native american languages to an extent where even though they were lost, there was actually a project here in near where i am to revive one of them in the southern part of massachusetts. When i was least a little bit successful, Scientists Say that at least one language is dying out perfect per week. And that means that nearly half of the languages we speak will be gone within the next century, wiser. Devers, that are reducing so dramatically. Well, i think theres been speculation about that. I think a lot of that is to use it to the to the internet. And the fact that people use languages like english or other common languages in the you. And they tend to wash out these smaller dialects. And if you get down to a smaller size, then that language will just drop out. And if you dont have someone who speaks it to your kids, then you can lose it. And thats a concern thats a concern that a lot of the nerds we wish have. And there are, in fact, efforts by the societies of language, like the Linguistics Society of america has one and in canada and other places to actually try to preserve some of these more minor you know, minor languages where theres not a lot of people, not a lot of speakers for them, but youre right, that is something to be concerned about. Because once you lose that language payments and less or some concerted effort to try to revive it, youll just like animal species or plant species, you might lose them forever. So thats a concern. Neural in the nearing is already making it possible to send signals from the brain to external devices like robot islands. May scientists are actually also saying that one day will i be able to communicate directly brain to brain without actually using speech or writing . Will we already own the language for that . Well, thats a terrific question because actually what that brings into focus is this difference between the external aspect of language, the fact that we can either speak it or if youre signing language use here, you can use manual gestures for example. So theres that aspect of language, but theres also an aspect of language that to do with its, its, its use inside your brain as a kind of inner thought. We all have the sense that were talking to ourselves. That might be more prevalent in some people than others, but i think when you begin to reflect on it, a lot of your, your own internal communication is in fact inner thought in that sense. And thats not speech. It seems to us like speech, but you can actually show that its not. And it looks like in that sense that language is a kind of inner mental tool that we use for pulling together many of our, our thoughts and i. D. s and making them coherent people. And then experiments about this to actually see that language. Internal language serves as a kind of sort of universal, you know, again like killing rush back, a universal system for pulling together all the other things that are going on with your, your, your sensory and brain activity. So youre constantly actually getting information about, you know, when youre looking at an object, you get, you know, what that color of the object is and where it is. So we know their particular areas in the brain that tell us what and where things are like the collar where it is. Theres a kind of geometrics ability that we have. Its built into us. And it turns out you can actually show that its language that pulls those things together. So those different components of your brain can talk to each other. So language in that sense is actually important internally. And i dont think thats going to be sort of put aside by these kinds of abilities, these kinds of neural beliefs that say, oh, by sending a little electrical signal i can then i make inside my brain. I can now turn the lights are off or lights. I dont think its going to be so easily replaced. But i still wonder with think without language, i mean toddlers or people who only speak sign language while at once. Do they thinking well at that again, its a really wonderful question because as far as we know, so language like sign language and the people that grow up, kids are grown ups, you know, only using sign language changed just the way that ordinary people think. I mean, the way they might express themselves can vary. So very famous experiment that was done years ago by lyle and lightman and barbara landau. They did the following thing. They, if you ask an ordinary, if you blindfold like a normal child and you tell the child to look up like this makes sense, right . If you take a blind child, ok and say you take a blind child in a blindfold them and you say look up, they go up, they raise their, you start to probe with their fingers, which is what a blind child who did. And i said its very interesting. They were different mode ality different way of expressing the same thing. They just 2 different way. But inside their heads, as far as gleitman and landau could make out, their thinking is just exactly the same. So we think what that means is that inside us, well we have our inner thoughts are in fact nearing language like, although its certainly true that theres other kinds of thinking like literal thanking. And the things that i, you know, a painter or a titian might do that, you know, lie off to one side of what one language strictly looks like as might. Those might all be connected up with language very tightly. But does the language i speak influence my thinking along, for instance, the english language like some more rigid ward order than russian . Right. Does that straight the way it is . Find me . No external part might bury. So russia might have them are, you know, more flexible word order or not their languages like this, or famous australian language. Well, bery, where the word order is completely free. So even freer than latin. So, you know, i can juggle the words in almost any word or, and yet, it turns out the internal thought process sees that we here as far as we can gauge, that looks invariant that looks like its the same from person to person. Nowadays, of course theres no, theres little variation, theres some variation. Theres certainly personal individual variation. And we cant exactly tell that. But so far as we can make out, the internal part, soft fixed, which is her what she wants. And thats what you want. So its almost like, you know, when you know, in the us, when they used to make all sorts of cars lined up on a certain type, the engine and the inside robby, the same. And then they would just stick different fenders and Different Things on the outside to look a lot different. But sort of the inside machinery would all be the same. Now not everyone who studies language shares that view, but thats certainly a view that i hold and other people who have looked at this inner structure of the way the language interfaces, other aspects over thinking friends are going to take a short break right now when were back well continue talking to robert baer effect professor of conversational in west texas Computer Science and engineering at mit. Talking about how language stay with us will sleep. Well leave their sleeves. W. Clubbable was if you are sure i can afford, it doesnt actually matter the age to put a gun by when youre going to do with it would seem to be somewhat put in your cities, come home and use the 20th century. Was thing in revolution. The Great Depression and world war, the 21st century of mental illness. Those are my words. Thats whats the best, some psychometrist to tell us. The only question is, we accept it as a fact. Is your media a reflection of reality . In a world transformed what will make you feel safe, isolation and community. Are you going the right way or are you being led . So what is true . What is fake . In the world corrupted, you need to descend to join us in the depths already made in the shallows. A new gold rush is underway and thousands of ill equipped workers are flocking to the gold fields, hoping to strike it rich. Heres a good. As children are torn between gold from me was very poor. I thought i was doing my best to get back to see which side will have the strongest appeal. And were back with robert byrd professor of computational linguistics, Computer Science and engineering at mit. Talking about how language evolves. Fessor said that the more language a person speaks more languages. A person though knows so many times hes a man. Is there a limit . And i think that i love that quote of him. Is there a limit and a human brain to how many languages one can speak . You know, and thats again, a funny question to think about. We had some sort of natural experiments that we were lucky enough to actually look at people who know many different languages and it doesnt seem like theres any real down there probably is because theres some limit on the number of words you can actually serve to keep separate and compartmentalize, but theres a very famous example of linguists who passed away about 15, i guess about 20 years ago now. Who was their mit . His name is ken arrow and he was a person who never lost the ability to learn language. That is what we know is that around schubert, any and sometime in some extent, after that, theres something that goes on in the brain. You remember . You probably remember puberty. Its a time when the brain either matures or, and it sure is depending on your point of view as to whether youre a parent or not. But we know that there are certain things that happen so that the brain actually becomes less plastic. And you, sir, you lose this ability to learn language as if its your native language. But there are a few people. There are very rare cases where that doesnt happen. And one of these people was canny here. And he realized this 1st, when he grew up in arizona, in the united states, actually, new mexico is parents sent him to a cowboy camp for the summer one summer. And his roommate, i was a navajo kid and can hail learned navajo within a few weeks. And its a tremendously difficult language to understand, to learn. You may be familiar with the fact that the navajo language was used during world war 2. Yeah. Japanese as a current that they couldnt break it. But it was easy present here. And yet he gets back to school, he is about 12 or 13 at the time. He learned polish russian, german, french boom, boom, boom, boom, boom, boom, boom. And his french teacher said, doesnt that just make you more confused . And he said now it just keeps getting easier and easier. And, and i was actually saying was lucky enough to see this in person because i actually, this is about 25 years ago. Just want down the stairs. There is a flight of stairs about 7 flights of stairs in at mit, and he was just met miskito, native American Indian and from nicaragua just started talking to him. And by the time he got down to the bottom of the stairs here, centrally was fluent. And that language in the sense that he could speak it perfectly. Can someone explain . I am not, i dont know. We dont understand this process. We dont understand how he was able to do this so well. But it was, if he was actually just started, you know child they can just and so were just, yeah, i mean were talking really about prodigies are like out of the ordinary thing. Thats really late there. He was deliberately for the milling record. Right. But another part of us is that like a limit to how many languages one can really speak. I dont think so in the sense that we know of even from people who arent. So bonce like that, like ken hell was that if you grow up in a bind when war trilingual hassle, theres people out no problem. But the kids have no problem with that. In fact, it seems that it crawl we can tell it actually improves their cognitive ability and their vocabulary and or their general intellectual functioning. So its, i dont think there really is that kind of limit. Were very classic, but its never actually been i dont think systematically tested. And that regard, i think we dont understand all the prodigies. There are lots of other prodigies, but sometimes they have other kinds of mental impairments. So we dont know whats going on there. So i think it remains an open question by think that by and large it seems that you can learn fair number of languages when youre a kid and we just dont know what that down there is for ordinary people. I just dont know it, i do think learning languages can be like an antidote to the brain maladies of age. Like, i mean, theres learning a language or speaking actually multiple ones make human brains more resilient elastic. Are there are actually some results on that. And it does seem that if you actually, even later in life start learning a 2nd language, your 3rd one down actually does help with plasticity and resilience against memory loss. But again, the, the areas with alzheimers and memory loss in language is a fairly new one. We have a couple people mit one of them and some professor shes been playing, whos working on that. And you can actually look at memory loss in language as a kind of guide to whats going on with all timers. And shes found that bilingual, people actually do better. So at least some added instance suggests that it is a help which i find very hard. So, some languages like italian or french have a melodic reputation reich. Others like german are viewed as more harsh to what extent, in this sound of the language influences cultural stereotypes about those who speak it. And theres a funny story about that, which is that you can actually pick that up as early as newborn. So one of my acquaintances, Angela Fred Ricci did these experiments at the marx plant, where what she did was taper, corey cries of newborn babies and births. And german babies would cry in a pattern like saying, well, and french babies would say it rather than this. So that was it, that actually followed the rhythmic pattern and you know, theres as much so you know, so where did they get that . And it turns out she looked into it. And of course what was happening was that the babies could actually hear their mothers speech in the room, right . Because they were in the lower frequencies. Actually you transmitted enough through into the uterus that the newborns actually have picked up on that already. So that actually in a sense, prepares them for acquiring language that theyre going to be born into, which is a kind of funny thing. But then theres this funny part that it actually followed the rhythmic patterns of french in english and verses german final language issues looking at so biological evolution says the lady, the forming of language and culture to language and culture in biology close in as well. I mean, ive heard this idea that the french have some special throat architecture that allows them to pronounce this recipe. Does this idea held underwater and not clear whether theres sea, when you actually look at the, the cases with french. Its not clear that theres been enough time that biologically to have influence what the structure of your throat is and whether thats having a shack. So let me turn to another example. Thats actually, i think a little less well known. Because there was work published on this about a year and a half 2 years ago, where they looked at the people in a sense its quite sun in africa, better able to make these socalled click noises, which are actually very rare in the roche languages hear noises you make with you like that . Yes, exactly like that are like that. Now thats very interesting for the following reason. Softness is again a dutch language, just another friend of mine reedy of bricks. Whos at the university of you tracked . Looked into this in some detail. And theres 2 interesting for facts about the clay sun. One of them is that they emerged very early in Subsaharan Africa almost about 140000 years ago as a kind of genetically isolated group. And when you can show theyre genetically isolated, we can do this from the genome studies now. So thats one thing. And the 2nd thing is that this click sound, in fact, does require a certain structure going to the roof of your mouth. That makes it easier to make those sounds and others and that click languages you can show aside from some, you know, theres some few cases where the people borrowed the plates. Some adjacent groups and others. So, but really was able to show that theres a release or like noise that you can ignore. Those complaining ridges are just associated with the quayside. So his hypothesis is, in that case, there is enough time for this kind of effect to build up on the roof here, match to may to make it adapted to this, making a click sounds. So you think saturday, so there is sun, i didnt see least in this one case where that can happen to maybe not the french because its too late. And theres too many cheeses in france anyway. So, you know, but in the case of this chance or so youre in a Language Group made, i think there actually isnt least some suggestion or evidence for this. Yeah, there is lots of evidence that people try to communicate by means of pictures before writing was invented, right . I mean, look at cave art. Now we communicate with them. Oh gee. And peter is more than words. I mean, it saves you time. It combines meanings and emotions. So in the real and which at least are we going to make words redundant and go back to basics, communicating with images rather than syntactic structures . Well, i think their language still has a, has a big age because with language, one of the things we can do that makes it so special is we can talk about things here, not just in the here and now. Right, so that on the few naam happy and so on in the year now, but i can add i can make the sentences as complicated as i want with their structure. So i can Say Something like, i believe that mary thinks that bill said john lasts, you know, yesterday its hard to imagine. As you see that he has a structure to it that looks like it. Now branches down and he cant, you know, just a linear sequence. I will, motions because it doesnt have that same ability to, you know, it can actually a little world, you know, the world where, you know, john left yesterday. I cant, you know, wrap it up and put it inside another about and take down bigger emotion rather than side another one. He doesnt want to do that. You know, you dont let you do that. So thats a theme oh geez, are you know, in a way of sort of stripped language of some of its enormous expressive power. But i think you still need to talk about the world should you can create with certain professor has been such a pleasure talking to you i would carry on and on and on. But we have for this particular problem, i hope well get to do this again. Ok, good luck with everything is great fun. Thank you very well where you are. Absolutely. So well see you hopefully sometime soon. Take care to write on your this is a story of women, women with troubled histories and complex court cases. You know, some of us deadly leave our whole lives out there who were not the person that there is a cheesiness of the they are considered the most dangerous of criminals. Shes in a still body off 23 hours of the day. Tell me that its not enough punishment in world of women on death row on r. T. What does the Election Results to date tell us about the state of american politics . There was no blue wave. Instead, there was a red ripple instead of calls for reconciliation. There are those looking to punish trump supporters. One step forward 2 steps for a new gold rush is underway in ghana. Thousands of ill equipped workers are flocking to the gold fields, hoping to strike it rich. Heres the good. As they are particles that work, children are torn between gold. My family was very poor. I thought i was doing my best to get back to school. Which side will have the strongest appeal . Pledges to for tat sanctions against france and germany over the alleged nerve agent poisoning and says, russias foreign minister suggests the kremlin critic may have been given the talks and outside the country. We have every reason to believe that what happened to him, but in terms of Chemical Warfare agents getting into his body, it was, it could have happened in germany. You have someone on the plane in which she was flown to a charity hospital. She was moved to a new surprises. Coronavirus vaccine could soon be ready for release is giving hope, but i need to rich countries as bora ones look like being priced out